Beryllium is the chemical element with the symbol Be and atomic number 4. It is a divalent element which occurs naturally only in combination with other elements in minerals. Notable gemstones which contain beryllium includeberyl (aquamarine, emerald) and chrysoberyl. As a free element it is a steel-gray, strong, lightweight and brittle alkaline earth metal.Sony VAIO VGN-Z620D Battery
Beryllium is used primarily as a hardening agent in alloys, notably beryllium copper. In structural applications, highflexural rigidity, thermal stability, thermal conductivity and low density (1.85 times that of water) make beryllium a quality aerospace material for high-speed aircraft, missiles, space vehicles and communication satellites. Sony VAIO VGN-Z620N/B Battery
Because of its low density and atomic mass, beryllium is relatively transparent to X-rays and other forms of ionizing radiation; therefore, it is the most common window material for X-ray equipment and in particle physics experiments. The high thermal conductivity of beryllium and beryllium oxide have led to their use in heat transport and heat sinking applications.Sony VAIO VGN-Z650N/B Battery
The commercial use of beryllium metal presents technical challenges due to the toxicity (especially by inhalation) of beryllium-containing dusts. Beryllium is corrosive to tissue, and can cause a chronic life-threatening allergic disease called berylliosis in some people.Sony VAIO VGN-Z670N/B Battery
As it is not synthesized in stars, beryllium is a relatively rare element in both the Earth and the universe. The element is not known to be necessary or useful for either plant or animal life.
Physical properties
Beryllium has exceptional flexural rigidity (Young's modulus 287 GPa) and a reasonably high melting point.Sony VAIO VGN-Z690CTO Battery
The modulus of elasticity of beryllium is approximately 50% greater than that of steel. The combination of this modulus and a relatively low density results in an unusually fast sound conduction speed in beryllium – about 12.9 km/s at ambient conditions.Sony VAIO VGN-Z690NAX Battery
Other significant properties are high specific heat (1925 J·kg?1·K?1) and thermal conductivity (216 W·m?1·K?1), which make beryllium the metal with the best heat dissipation characteristics per unit weight. In combination with the relatively low coefficient of linear thermal expansion (11.4×10?6 K?1), these characteristics result in a unique stability under conditions of thermal loading.Sony VAIO VGN-Z690PAB Battery
Nuclear properties
Beryllium has a large scattering cross section for high-energy neutrons, about 6 barns for energies above ~0.01 eV. Therefore, it effectively slows the neutrons to the thermal energy range of below 0.03 eV, where the total cross section is at least an order of magnitude lower – exact value strongly depends on the purity and size of the crystallites in the material. Sony VAIO VGN-Z690PCB Battery
The predominant beryllium isotope 9Be also undergoes a (n,2n) neutron reaction to 8Be, which then instantaneously breaks into two alpha particles; that is, beryllium is a neutron multiplier, releasing more neutrons than it absorbs. This nuclear reaction is:Sony VAIO VGN-Z690PDB Battery
As a metal, beryllium is transparent to most wavelengths of X-rays and gamma rays, making it useful for the output windows ofX-ray tubes and other such apparatus. It is also a good source for the relatively-small numbers of free neutrons in the laboratory which are liberated when beryllium nuclei are struck by energetic alpha particles producing the nuclear reaction ?Sony VAIO VGN-Z690PEB Battery
Beryllium contains only one stable isotope, 9Be, and therefore is a monoisotopic element. Cosmogenic 10Be is produced in theatmosphere of the Earth by the cosmic ray spallation of oxygen and nitrogen. Sony VAIO VGN-Z690PFB Battery
Cosmogenic 10Be accumulates at the soil surface, where its relatively long half-life (1.36 million years) permits a long residence time before decaying to boron-10. Thus, 10Be and its daughter products are used to examine natural soil erosion, soil formation and the development of lateritic soils, and as a proxy for measurement of the variations in solar activity and the age of ice cores.Sony VAIO VGN-Z690YAD Battery
The production of 10Be is inversely proportional to the solar activity, because the increased solar wind during periods of high solar magnetic activity in turn decreases the flux of galactic cosmic rays that reach the Earth. Nuclear explosions also form 10Be by the reaction of fast neutrons with 13C in the carbon dioxide in air. Sony VAIO VGN-Z691Y/B Battery
This is one of the indicators of past activity at nuclear weapon test sites.
The isotope 7Be (half-life 53 days) is also cosmogenic, and shows an atmospheric abundance linked to sunspots much like 10Be.Sony VAIO VGN-Z691Y/X Battery
8Be has a very short half-life of about 7×10?17 s that contributes to its significant cosmological role, as elements heavier than beryllium could not have been produced by nuclear fusion in the Big Bang. This is due to the lack of sufficient time during the Big Bang's nucleosynthesis phase to produce carbon by the fusion of 4He nuclei and the very low concentrations of available beryllium-8. Sony VAIO VGN-Z698Y/X Battery
The British astronomer Sir Fred Hoyle first showed that the energy levels of 8Be and 12C allow carbon production by the so-called triple-alpha process in helium-fueled stars where more nucleosynthesis time is available, thus making creation of carbon-based life possible from the gas and dust ejected by supernovas (see also Big Bang nucleosynthesis).Sony VAIO VGN-Z70B Battery
The innermost electrons of beryllium may contribute to chemical bonding. Therefore, when 7Be decays by electron capture, it does so by taking electrons from atomic orbitals that may participate in bonding. This makes its decay rate dependent to a measurable degree upon its electron configuration – a rare occurrence in nuclear decay.Sony VAIO VGN-Z699JAB Battery
The shortest-lived known isotope of beryllium is 13Be which decays through neutron emission. It has a half-life of 2.7 × 10?21 s. 6Be is also very short-lived with a half-life of 5.0 × 10?21 s. The exotic isotopes 11Be and 14Be are known to exhibit a nuclear halo.Sony VAIO VGN-Z71JB Battery
This phenomenon can be understood as the nuclei of 11Be and 14Be have, respectively, 1 and 4 neutrons orbiting substantially outside the classical Fermi 'waterdrop' model of the nucleus.
Unstable isotopes of beryllium are created in stars, but these do not last long. It is believed that most of the stable beryllium was created when cosmic rays induced fission in heavier elements found in interstellar gas and dust.Sony VAIO VGN-Z73FB Battery
Occurrence
Beryllium is scarce in the universe. With a concentration of 1 part per billion (ppb) by weight, it is much less abundant than all elements preceding niobium, with the exception of boron, which has a similar abundance. Beryllium is similarly rare in the Sun with a concentration of 0.1 ppb by weight, similar to that of rhenium.Sony VAIO VGN-Z790DKX Battery
The beryllium concentration in the Earth's surface rocks is ca. 4–6 ppm by atoms. Beryllium is a major constituent of about 100 out of some 4000 known minerals, the most important of which are bertrandite (Be4Si2O7(OH)2), beryl (Al2Be3Si6O18),chrysoberyl (Al2BeO4) and phenakite (Be2SiO4). Precious forms of beryl are aquamarine, bixbite and emerald.Sony VAIO VGN-Z790DMR Battery
In sea water, beryllium is exceedingly rare, more so than even scandium, comprising only 0.0006 ppb by weight.In stream water, however, beryllium is more abundant with 0.1 ppb by weight.
Production
Because of its high affinity for oxygen at elevated temperatures, and its ability to reduce water when its oxide film is removed, the extraction of beryllium from its compounds is a difficult process. Sony VAIO VGN-Z790DND Battery
Electrolysis of a mixture of beryllium fluoride and sodium fluoride was used to isolate beryllium during the 19th century. The metal's high melting point makes this process more energy-consuming than corresponding processes used for the alkali metals. Sony VAIO VGN-Z820DB Battery
Early in the 20th century, the production of beryllium by the thermal decomposition of beryllium iodide was investigated following the success of a similar process for the production of zirconium, but this process proved to be uneconomical for volume production.Sony VAIO VGN-Z820G/B Battery
Pure beryllium metal did not become readily available until 1957, even though it had been used as an alloying metal to harden and toughen copper much earlier. Beryllium could be produced by reducing beryllium compounds such as beryllium chloride with metallic potassium or sodium. Sony VAIO VGN-Z890GLX Battery
Currently most beryllium is produced by reducing beryllium fluoride with purified magnesium. The price on the American market for vacuum-cast beryllium ingots was about $338 per pound ($745 per kilogram) in 2001. The chemical equation for the key reaction is as follows:Sony VAIO VGN-Z890GMR Battery
The United States, China and Kazakhstan are the only three countries involved in the industrial scale extraction of beryllium. In the US,Brush Wellman Inc. is the main producer of beryllium and beryllium products. This company smelts its beryllium ore, which contains the mineral bertrandite, and which comes mostly from the company-owned Spor Mountain deposit in the State of Utah.Sony VAIO VGN-Z898H/X Battery
The smelting and other refining of the beryllium is carried out at a factory 10 miles north of Delta, Utah, a location chosen for its remoteness and proximity to theIntermountain Power Project. Between 1998 and 2008, the world's production of beryllium had decreased from 343 to about 200 tonnes, of which 176 tonnes (88%) came from the United States.Sony VAIO VGN-Z90FS Battery
Beryllium metal is located above aluminium in the electrochemical series and therefore is expected to show significant chemical activity; however, it is passivated by an oxide layer and does not react with air or water even at red heat.Sony VAIO VGN-Z90NS Battery
Once ignited, beryllium burns brilliantly forming a mixture ofberyllium oxide and beryllium nitride. Beryllium dissolves readily in non-oxidizing acids, such as HCl and diluted H2SO4, but not in nitric acid as this forms the oxide. This behavior is similar to that of aluminium metal. Sony VAIO VGN-Z90PS Battery
Beryllium, again similarly to aluminium, dissolves in warm alkali solutions to form the beryllate anion, Be(OH)42?, and hydrogen gas.
The beryllium atom has the electronic configuration [He] 2s2. In beryllium compounds the two electrons are lost and beryllium is in the +2 oxidation state; the only evidence of lower valence of beryllium is in the solubility of the metal in BeCl2.Sony VAIO VGN-Z90S Battery
The small atomic radius leads to significant covalent character in beryllium's bonding. Beryllium is 4-fold coordinated in virtually all of its derivatives, e.g. [Be(H2O)4]2+ and tetrahaloberyllates, BeX42?. This characteristic is employed in analytical techniques using EDTA as a ligand. Sony VAIO VGN-Z90US Battery
EDTA preferentially forms octahedral complexes – thus absorbing other cations such as Al3+which might interfere – for example, in the solvent extraction of a complex formed between Be2+ and acetylacetone.
Solutions of beryllium salts, e.g. beryllium sulfate and beryllium nitrate, are acidic because of hydrolysis of the [Be(H2O)4]2+ion.
[Be(H2O)4]2+ + H2O [Be(H2O)3(OH)]+ + H3O+ Sony VAIO VGN-Z91DS Battery
Other products of hydrolysis include the trimeric ion [Be3(OH)3(H2O)6]3+. Beryllium hydroxide, Be(OH)2, is insoluble even in acidic solutions with pH less than 6, that is at biological pH. It is amphoteric and dissolves in strongly alkaline solutions.Sony VAIO VGN-Z91JS Battery
Beryllium forms binary compounds with many non-metals. Anhydrous halides are known for F, Cl, Br and I. BeF2 has a silica-like structure with corner-shared BeF4 tetrahedra. BeCl2 and BeBr2 have chain structures with edge-shared tetrahedra. All beryllium halides have a linear monomeric molecular structure in the gas phase.Sony VAIO VGN-Z91PS Battery
Beryllium oxide, BeO, is a white refractory solid, which has the wurtzite crystal structure and a thermal conductivity as high as in some metals. BeO is amphoteric. Salts of beryllium can be produced by treating Be(OH)2 with acid.[27] Beryllium sulfide, selenide and telluride are known, all having the zincblende structure.Sony VAIO VGN-Z91YS Battery
Beryllium nitride, Be3N2 is a high-melting-point compound which is readily hydrolyzed. Beryllium azide, BeN6 is known and beryllium phosphide, Be3P2 has a similar structure to Be3N2. Basic beryllium nitrate and basic beryllium acetate have similar tetrahedral structures with four beryllium atoms coordinated to a central oxide ion.Sony VAIO VGN-Z92DS Battery
A number of beryllium borides are known, such as Be5B, Be4B, Be2B, BeB2, BeB6 and BeB12. Beryllium carbide, Be2C, is a refractory brick-red compound that reacts with water to give methane. No beryllium silicide has been identified.
History
Early analyses of emeralds and beryls always yielded similar elements, leading to the fallacious conclusion that both substances are aluminium silicates.Sony VAIO VGN-Z92JS Battery
René Just Haüy discovered that both crystals show strong similarities, and he asked the chemist Louis-Nicolas Vauquelin for a chemical analysis. Vauquelin was able to separate the aluminium from the beryllium by dissolving the aluminium hydroxide in an additional alkali.Vauquelin named the new element "glucinum" for the sweet taste of some of its compounds.Sony VAIO VGN-Z92PS Battery
Friedrich Wöhler and Antoine Bussy independently isolated beryllium in 1828 by the chemical reaction of metallic potassium with beryllium chloride, as follows:
BeCl2 + 2 K ? 2 KCl + Be
The potassium itself had been produced by the electrolysis of its compounds, a newly discovered process. Sony VAIO VGN-Z92YS Battery
This chemical method yielded only small grains of beryllium from which no ingot of metal could be cast or hammered. The direct electrolysis of a molten mixture of beryllium fluoride and sodium fluoride by Paul Lebeau in 1898 resulted in the first pure samples of beryllium.Sony VAIO VGN-Z93FS Battery
It took until World War I (1914–18) before significant amounts of beryllium were produced, but large-scale production was not started until early 1930s. It saw a rapid increase during World War II, due to the rising demand for hard beryllium-copper alloys and phosphorsfor fluorescent lights. Sony VAIO VGN-Z93GS Battery
In the first years, most fluorescent lamps used zinc orthosilicate with varying content of beryllium to emit greenish light. Small additions of magnesium tungstate improved the blue part of the spectrum yielding acceptable white. After it was discovered that beryllium was toxic, halophosphate-based phosphors took over.Sony VAIO VGN-Z93HS Battery
Early usage of the word beryllium can be traced to many languages, including Latin Beryllus; French Béry; Greek ????????, b?rullos, beryl; Prakrit veruliya(????????); P?li ve?uriya (???????), ve?iru (??????) or vi?ar (?????) – "to become pale," in reference to the pale semiprecious gemstone beryl. Sony VAIO VGN-Z93VS Battery
The original source is probably the Sanskrit word ??????? vaidurya-, which is of Dravidian origin and could be derived from the name of the modern city of Belur. For about 160 years, beryllium was also known as glucinum or glucinium (with the accompanying chemical symbol "Gl", ), the name coming from the Greek word for sweet: ??????, due to the sweet taste of beryllium salts.Sony VAIO VGN-AW92YS Battery
It is estimated that most beryllium is used for military applications, so information is not readily available.
Radiation windows
Because of its low atomic number and very low absorption for X-rays, the oldest and still one of the most important applications of beryllium is in radiation windows for X-ray tubes.Sony VAIO VGN-AW93FS Battery
Extreme demands are placed on purity and cleanliness of beryllium to avoid artifacts in the X-ray images. Thin beryllium foils are used as radiation windows for X-ray detectors, and the extremely low absorption minimizes the heating effects caused by high intensity, low energy X-rays typical of synchrotron radiation.Sony VAIO VGN-AW93GS Battery
Vacuum-tight windows and beam-tubes for radiation experiments on synchrotrons are manufactured exclusively from beryllium. In scientific setups for various X-ray emission studies (e.g., energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy) the sample holder is usually made of beryllium because its emitted X-rays have much lower energies (~100 eV) than X-rays from most studied materials.Sony VAIO VGN-AW93HS Battery
Low atomic number also makes beryllium relatively transparent to energetic particles. Therefore it is used to build the beam pipe around the collision region in particle physicssetups, such as all four main detector experiments at the Large Hadron Collider (ALICE, ATLAS, CMS, LHCb), the Tevatron and the SLAC. Sony VAIO VGN-AW93ZFS Battery
The low density of beryllium allows collision products to reach the surrounding detectors without significant interaction, its stiffness allows a powerful vacuum to be produced within the pipe to minimize interaction with gases, its thermal stability allows it to function correctly at temperatures of only a few degrees above absolute zero, and its diamagnetic nature keeps it from interfering with the complex multipole magnet systems used to steer and focus the particle beams. Sony VAIO VGN-AW93ZGS Battery
Mechanical applications
Because of its stiffness, light weight and dimensional stability over a wide temperature range, beryllium metal is used for lightweight structural components in the defense and aerospace industries in high-speed aircraft, missiles, space vehicles and communication satellites. Sony VAIO VGN-AW93ZHS Battery
Several liquid-fuel rockets use nozzles of pure beryllium. A small number of bicycle frames were built with beryllium, at "astonishing" prices.
Beryllium is used as an alloying agent in the production of beryllium copper, which contains up to 2.5% beryllium. Sony VAIO VGN-BZ11EN Battery
Beryllium-copper alloys are used in many applications because of their combination of high electrical and thermal conductivity, high strength and hardness, nonmagnetic properties, along with good corrosionand fatigue resistance. These applications include the making of spot welding electrodes, springs, non-sparking tools and electrical contacts.Sony VAIO VGN-BZ11MN Battery
The excellent elastic rigidity of beryllium has led to its extensive use in precision instrumentation, e.g. in gyroscope inertial guidance systems and in support structures for optical systems. Beryllium-copper alloys were also applied as a hardening agent in Jason pistols, which were used to strip paint from the hulls of ships.Sony VAIO VGN-BZ11XN Battery
An earlier major application of beryllium was in brakes for military aircraft because of its hardness, high melting point and exceptional heat dissipation. Environmental considerations have led to substitution by other materials.
To reduce cost, beryllium may be fabricated with large amounts of aluminium, resulting in AlBeMet (trade name). This blend is cheaper, while still retaining many desirable properties.Sony VAIO VGN-BZ12VN Battery
Mirrors
Beryllium mirrors are of particular interest. Large-area mirrors, frequently with a honeycomb support structure, are used, for example, in meteorological satelliteswhere low weight and long-term dimensional stability are critical.Sony VAIO VGN-BZ12XN Battery
Smaller beryllium mirrors are used in optical guidance systems and in fire-control systems, e.g. in the German-made Leopard 1 and Leopard 2 main battle tanks. In these systems, very rapid movement of the mirror is required which again dictates low mass and high rigidity. Sony VAIO VGN-BZ31VT Battery
Usually the beryllium mirror is coated with hard electroless nickel plating which can be more easily polished to a finer optical finish than beryllium. In some applications, though, the beryllium blank is polished without any coating. This is particularly applicable to cryogenic operation where thermal expansion mismatch can cause the coating to buckle.Sony VAIO VGN-BZ31XT Battery
The James Webb Space Telescope[44] will have 18 hexagonal beryllium sections for its mirrors. Because JWST will face a temperature of 33 K, the mirror is made of beryllium, capable of handling extreme cold better than glass. Beryllium contracts and deforms less than glass – and remains more uniform – in such temperatures.Sony VAIO VGN-BZ560 Battery
For the same reason, the optics of the Spitzer Space Telescope are entirely built of beryllium metal.
Magnetic applications
Beryllium is non-magnetic. Therefore, tools fabricated out of beryllium are used by naval or military explosive ordnance disposal teams for work on or near naval mines, since these mines commonly have magnetic fuzes.Sony VAIO VGN-BZ560N24 Battery
They are also found in maintenance and construction materials near magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) machines because of the high magnetic fields generated by them. In the fields of radio communications and powerful (usually military) radars, hand tools made of beryllium are used to tune the highly magnetic klystrons,Sony VAIO VGN-BZ560N30 Battery
magnetrons, traveling wave tubes, etc., that are used for generating high levels of microwave power in thetransmitters.
Nuclear applications
Thin plates or foils of beryllium are sometimes used in nuclear weapon designs as the very outer layer of the plutonium pits in the primary stages of thermonuclear bombs, placed to surround the fissile material. Sony VAIO VGN-BZ560P Battery
These layers of beryllium are good "pushers" for the implosion of the plutonium-239, and they are also good neutron reflectors, just as they are in beryllium-moderated nuclear reactors.
Beryllium is also commonly used as a neutron source in laboratory experiments in which relatively few neutrons are needed (rather than having to use a nuclear reactor).Sony VAIO VGN-BZ560P20 Battery
For this purpose, a target of beryllium-9 is bombarded with energetic alpha particles from a radio-isotope such as polonium-210, radium-226, plutonium-239, or americium-241. In the nuclear reaction that occurs, a beryllium nucleus are transmuted into carbon-12, and one free neutron is emitted, traveling in about the same direction as the alpha particle was heading. Sony VAIO VGN-BZ560P22 Battery
Such neutron sources, named "urchin" neutron initiators, were used some in early atomic bombs.
Beryllium is also used at the Joint European Torus nuclear-fusion research laboratory, and it will be used in the more advanced ITER to condition the components which face the plasma.Sony VAIO VGN-BZ560P28 Battery
Beryllium has also been proposed as a cladding material for nuclear fuel rods, owing to its good combination of mechanical, chemical and nuclear properties. Beryllium fluoride is one of the constituent salts of the eutectic salt mixture FLiBe, which is used as a solvent, moderator and coolant in many hypothetical molten salt reactor designs.Sony VAIO VGN-BZ560P30 Battery
Acoustics
Low weight and high rigidity of beryllium make it useful as a material for high-frequency speaker drivers. Because beryllium is expensive (many times more thantitanium), hard to shape due to its brittleness, and toxic if mishandled, beryllium tweeters are limited to high-end home, pro audio and public addressapplications.Sony VAIO VGN-BZ560P34 Battery
More often, beryllium is alloyed with other metals, which is sometimes not disclosed for marketing purposes.
Electronic
Beryllium is a p-type dopant in III-V compound semiconductors. It is widely used in materials such as GaAs, AlGaAs, InGaAs and InAlAs grown by molecular beam epitaxy(MBE).Sony VAIO VGN-BZ561 Battery
Cross-rolled beryllium sheet is an excellent structural support for printed circuit boards in surface-mount technology. In critical electronic applications, beryllium is both a structural support and heat sink. The application also requires a coefficient of thermal expansion that is well matched to thealumina and polyimide-glass substrates. Sony VAIO VGN-BZ561N20 Battery
The beryllium-beryllium oxide composite "E-Materials" have been specially designed for these electronic applications and have the additional advantage that the thermal expansion coefficient can be tailored to match diverse substrate materials.
Beryllium oxide is useful for many applications that require the combined properties of an electrical insulator and an excellent heat conductor, with high strength and hardness, and a very high melting point.Sony VAIO VGN-BZ561P20 Battery
Beryllium oxide is frequently used as an insulator base plate in high-power transistors in radio frequency transmittersfor telecommunications. Beryllium oxide is also being studied for use in increasing the thermal conductivity of uranium dioxide nuclear fuel pellets.Sony VAIO VGN-BZ562P Battery
Beryllium compounds were used in fluorescent lighting tubes, but this use was discontinued because of the disease berylliosis which developed in the workers who were making the tubes.
Complexes
Beryllium(II) readily forms complexes with strong donating ligands such as phosphine oxides and arsine oxides. There have been extensive studies of these complexes which show the stability of the O-Be bond.Sony VAIO VGN-BZ563P Battery
Toxicity
The toxicity of beryllium depends upon the duration, intensity and frequency of exposure (features of dose), as well as the form of beryllium and the route of exposure (e.g., inhalation, dermal, ingestion). According to the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), beryllium and beryllium compounds are Category 1 carcinogens;Sony VAIO VGN-BZAAFS Battery
they are carcinogenic to animals (including humans). Chronic berylliosis is a pulmonary and systemic granulomatous disease caused by exposure to beryllium. Acute beryllium disease in the form of chemical pneumonitis was first reported in Europe in 1933 and in the United States in 1943.Sony VAIO VGN-BZAAHS Battery
Cases of chronic berylliosis were first described in 1946 among workers in plants manufacturing fluorescent lamps in Massachusetts. Chronic berylliosis resembles sarcoidosis in many respects, and the differential diagnosis is often difficult. It killed some early workers in nuclear weapons design, such as Herbert L. Anderson.Sony VAIO VGN-BZAANS Battery
Early researchers tasted beryllium and its various compounds for sweetness in order to verify its presence. Modern diagnostic equipment no longer necessitates this highly risky procedure and no attempt should be made to ingest this highly toxic substance.Sony VAIO VGN-BZAAPS Battery
Beryllium and its compounds should be handled with great care and special precautions must be taken when carrying out any activity which could result in the release of beryllium dust (lung cancer is a possible result of prolonged exposure to beryllium laden dust).Sony VAIO VGN-CR11H/B Battery
Although the use of beryllium compounds in fluorescent lighting tubes was discontinued in 1949, potential for exposure to beryllium exists in the nuclear and aerospace industries and in the refining of beryllium metal and melting of beryllium-containing alloys, the manufacturing of electronic devices, and the handling of other beryllium-containing material.Sony VAIO VGN-CR11S/L Battery
A successful test for beryllium in air and on surfaces has been recently developed and published as an international voluntary consensus standard ASTM D7202. The procedure uses dilute ammonium bifluoride for dissolution and fluorescence detection with beryllium bound to sulfonated hydroxybenzoquinoline, Sony VAIO VGN-CR11S/P Battery
allowing up to 100 times more sensitive detection than the recommended limit for beryllium concentration in the workplace. Fluorescence increases with increasing beryllium concentration. The new procedure has been successfully tested on a variety of surfaces and is effective for the dissolution and ultratrace detection of refractory beryllium oxide and siliceous beryllium (ASTM D7458).Sony VAIO VGN-CR11S/W Battery
Beryllium poisoning refers to the toxic effects of beryllium, in its elemental form or in various chemical compounds. The toxicity of beryllium depends upon the duration, intensity and frequency of exposure (features of dose), as well as the form of beryllium and the route of exposure (i.e. inhalation, dermal, ingestion).Sony VAIO VGN-CR11Z/R Battery
According to the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), beryllium and beryllium compounds are Category 1 carcinogens; they are carcinogenic to both animals and humans.
Chronic berylliosis is a pulmonary and systemic granulomatous disease caused by exposure to beryllium. Sony VAIO VGN-CR120E/L Battery
Acute beryllium disease in the form of chemical pneumonitis was first reported in Europe in 1933 and in the United States in 1943. Cases of chronic berylliosis were first described in 1946 among workers in plants manufacturing fluorescent lamps in Salem, Massachusetts.Sony VAIO VGN-CR120E/P Battery
Chronic berylliosis resembles sarcoidosis in many respects, and the differential diagnosis is often difficult. It occasionally killed early workers in nuclear weapons design, such as Herbert L. Anderson. Sony VAIO VGN-CR120E/R Battery
Although the use of beryllium compounds in fluorescent lighting tubes was discontinued in 1949, potential for exposure to beryllium exists in the nuclear and aerospace industries and in the refining of beryllium metal and melting of beryllium-containing alloys, the manufacturing of electronic devices, and the handling of other beryllium-containing material.Sony VAIO VGN-CR120E/W Battery
Early researchers tasted beryllium and its various compounds for sweetness in order to verify its presence. Modern diagnostic equipment no longer necessitates this highly risky procedure and no attempt should be made to ingest this highly toxic substance.Sony VAIO VGN-CR125E/B Battery
Beryllium and its compounds should be handled with great care and special precautions must be taken when carrying out any activity which could result in the release of beryllium dust (lung cancer is a possible result of prolonged exposure to beryllium laden dust).
This substance can be handled safely if certain procedures are followed.Sony VAIO VGN-CR13/B Battery
No attempt should be made to work with beryllium before familiarization with correct handling procedures.
A successful test for beryllium in air and on surfaces has been recently developed and published as an international voluntary consensus standard (ASTM D7202; www.astm.org). Sony VAIO VGN-CR13/L Battery
The procedure uses dilute ammonium bifluoride for dissolution and fluorescence detection with beryllium bound to sulfonated hydroxybenzoquinoline, allowing detection up to 100 times lower than the recommended limit for beryllium concentration in the workplace.Sony VAIO VGN-CR13/P Battery
Fluorescence increases with increasing beryllium concentration. The new procedure has been successfully tested on a variety of surfaces and is effective for the dissolution and ultratrace detection of refractory beryllium oxide and siliceous beryllium (ASTM D7458).Sony VAIO VGN-CR13/R Battery
Beryllium is harmful if inhaled and the effects depend on the duration, intensity, and frequency of exposure. If beryllium concentrations in air are high enough (greater than 100 µg/m3), an acute condition can result, called acute beryllium disease, which resembles pneumonia. Sony VAIO VGN-CR13/W Battery
Occupational and community air standards are effective in preventing most acute lung damage. Long-term beryllium exposure can increase the risk of developing lung cancer.
The more common serious health problem from beryllium today is chronic beryllium disease (CBD), discussed below.Sony VAIO VGN-CR131E/L Battery
It continues to occur in industries as diverse as metal recycling, dental laboratories, alloy manufacturing, nuclear weapons production and metal machine shops that work with alloys containing small amounts of beryllium. Sony VAIO VGN-CR13G Battery
A 2005 study found that "Both CBD and sensitization occurred in former workers whose mean daily working lifetime average exposures were lower than the current allowable Occupational Safety and Health Administration workplace air level of 2 ?g/m3 and the Department of Energy guideline of 0.2 ?g/m3."Sony VAIO VGN-CR13G/B Battery
A 2008 report from the United States National Research Council said that worker exposure to beryllium should be kept "at the lowest feasible level," as the agency's research could not establish any safe level of exposure.
Acute Beryllium Disease
Overexposure to beryllium can cause inflammation of the upper and/or lower respiratory tracts.Sony VAIO VGN-CR13G/L Battery
The symptoms of acute beryllium disease are non-specific, resembling other inhalational injuries, viral infections, or pneumonia. Upper respiratory findings include nasopharyngitis and tracheobronchitis. Symptoms may include irritation of the nares and pharynx, epistaxis, cough, and a metallic taste.Sony VAIO VGN-CR13G/P Battery
Nasopharyngitis can progress to formation of nasal fissures, ulcerations, or perforation.
Therapy is supportive and includes removal from further beryllium exposure. Acute beryllium pneumonitis produces severe cough (occasionally with blood-streaked sputum), chest pain or burning, and shortness of breath.Sony VAIO VGN-CR13G/R Battery
The patient is usually ill-appearing, and presents with hypoxemia, cyanosis, tachycardia, and shallow rapid breathing. Systemic symptoms include fever (usually low-grade), malaise, and anorexia. The chest X-ray can reveal diffuse, bilateral alveolar infiltrates.Sony VAIO VGN-CR13G/W Battery
There is no specific diagnostic test for acute beryllium disease. Biopsy of the lungs reveals a nonspecific granulomatous inflammation. Treatment is supportive, including oxygen supplementation as needed, and removal from further beryllium exposure. Corticosteroids are sometimes tried, but no good controlled studies are reported.Sony VAIO VGN-CR13T/L Battery
The signs and symptoms of acute beryllium pneumonitis usually resolve over several weeks to months, but it may be fatal, and about 15–20% of cases may progress to CBD.
Chronic Beryllium Disease (CBD)
Sensitization is not an illness, but some exposed individuals, if inhaling sufficient quantities of beryllium dust in the micrometer-size range, may have an inflammatory reaction that principally targets the respiratory system and skin. Sony VAIO VGN-CR13T/P Battery
This condition is called chronic beryllium disease (CBD), and can occur within a few months or many years (average 10 years in some series ) after exposure to higher-than-normal levels of beryllium (greater than 0.2 µg/m3). This disease causes fatigue, weakness, night sweats and can cause difficulty in breathing and a persistent dry cough. Sony VAIO VGN-CR13T/R Battery
It can result in anorexia, weight loss, and may also lead to right-side heart enlargement and heart disease in advanced cases.
Typically, CBD has an insidious onset and runs an indolent course. Some people who are sensitized to beryllium may not have symptoms, and just being sensitized is not a recognized health effect. Sony VAIO VGN-CR13T/W Battery
CBD occurs when the body's immune system recognizes beryllium particles as foreign material and mounts an immune system attack against the particles. Because these particles are typically inhaled into the lungs, the lungs become the major site where the immune system responds. Sony VAIO VGN-CR15/B Battery
The lung sacs become inflamed and fill with large numbers of white blood cells that accumulate wherever beryllium particles are found. These cells form balls around the beryllium particles called "granulomas." When enough of these develop, they interfere with the normal function of the organ. Sony VAIO VGN-CR150E/B Battery
Over time, the lungs become stiff and lose their ability to transfer oxygen from the air into the bloodstream. Early on in the disease, there may be a mild obstructive ventilatory defect. In advanced cases, there is a restrictive defect and reduced diffusion capacity. Patients with CBD develop difficulty inhaling and exhaling sufficient amounts of air, and the amount of oxygen in their bloodstreams falls.Sony VAIO VGN-CR190 Battery
Most of the clinical features of CBD are indistinguishable from thoracic involvement with sarcoidosis. The chest radiograph usually reveals bilateral, mid- and upper-lobe predominant reticulonodular infiltrates, as well as hilar and mediastinal adenopathy. For suspected cases of CBD, fiber-optic bronchoscopy withbronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) is indicated. Sony VAIO VGN-CR190E/L Battery
The BAL fluid should undergo beryllium lymphocyte proliferation testing (BAL BeLPT), the "gold standard" for the diagnosis. The measurement of beryllium in urine or tissue does not establish the diagnosis, and there are technical and interpretive problems with these tests. Blood BeLPT detects approximately 70-90% of CBD cases.Sony VAIO VGN-CR190E/P Battery
CBD is treatable, but not curable with traditional drugs and medicine. Removal from further beryllium exposure is advisable. Treatment includes supplemental oxygen and corticosteroids (such as prednisone) to lower the body's overreaction to beryllium. If therapy with corticosteroid is successful, treatment is usually continued lifelong because of disease relapse after steroid cessation.Sony VAIO VGN-CR190E/R Battery
In general, CBD worsens without treatment. Prognosis is best for those diagnosed at an earlier stage. Overall mortality rates are 5-38%.
The general population is unlikely to develop acute or chronic beryllium disease because ambient air levels of beryllium are normally very low (<0.03 ng/m3).Sony VAIO VGN-CR190E/W Battery
Ingestion
Swallowing beryllium has not been reported to cause effects in humans because very little beryllium is absorbed from the stomach and intestines. Harmful effects have sometimes been seen in animals ingesting beryllium.Sony VAIO VGN-CR19VN/B Battery
Dermatological effects
Beryllium can cause local irritation and contact dermatitis. Beryllium contact with skin that has been scraped or cut may cause rashes, ulcers, or bumps under the skin called granulomas. Beryllium dust or powder can irritate the eyes, producing itching, burning, or conjunctivitis.Sony VAIO VGN-CR19XN/B Battery
There are no studies on the health effects of children exposed to beryllium, although individual cases of CBD have been reported in children of beryllium workers from the 1940s. It is unknown whether children differ from adults in their susceptibility to beryllium. It is unclear whether beryllium is teratogenic.Sony VAIO VGN-CR20 Battery
Beryllium can be measured in the urine and blood. The amount of beryllium in blood or urine may not indicate time or quantity of exposure. Beryllium levels can also be measured in lung and skin samples. Sony VAIO VGN-CR21/B Battery
While such measurements may help establish that exposure has occurred, other tests are used to determine if that exposure has resulted in health effects. A blood test, the blood beryllium lymphocyte proliferation test (BeLPT), identifies beryllium sensitization and has predictive value for CBD.Sony VAIO VGN-CR21E/L Battery
The BeLPT has become the standard test for detecting beryllium sensitization and CBD in individuals who are suspected of having CBD and to help distinguish it from similar conditions such as sarcoidosis. It is also the main test used in industry health programs to monitor whether disease is occurring among current and former workers who have been exposed to beryllium on the job. Sony VAIO VGN-CR21E/P Battery
The test can detect disease that is at an early stage, or can detect disease at more advanced stages of illness as well. The BeLPT can also be performed using cells obtained from a person's lung by a procedure called "bronchoscopy".
Industrial release and occupational exposure limits
Typical levels of beryllium that industries may release into the air are of the order of 0.01 µg/m3, averaged over a 30-day period, or 2 µg/m3 of workroom air for an 8-hour work shift. Sony VAIO VGN-CR21E/W Battery
Compliance with the current U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) permissible exposure limit for beryllium of 2 µg/m3 has been determined to be inadequate to protect workers from developing beryllium sensitization and CBD.Sony VAIO VGN-CR21S/L Battery
The American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists(ACGIH), which is an independent organization of experts in the field of occupational health, has proposed a threshold limit value (TLV) of 0.05 µg/m3 in a 2006 Notice of Intended Change (NIC).Sony VAIO VGN-CR21S/P Battery
This TLV is 40 times lower than the current OSHA permissible exposure limit, reflecting the ACGIH analysis of best available peer-reviewed research data concerning how little airborne beryllium is required to cause sensitization and CBD.Sony VAIO VGN-CR21S/W Battery
Because it can be difficult to control industrial exposures to beryllium, it is advisable to use any methods possible to reduce airborne and surface contamination by beryllium, to minimize the use of beryllium and beryllium-containing alloys whenever possible, and to educate people about the potential hazards if they are likely to encounter beryllium dust or fumes.Sony VAIO VGN-CR21Z/N Battery
On 29 January 2009, the Los Alamos National Laboratory announced it was notifying nearly 2,000 current and former employees and visitors that they may have been exposed to beryllium in the lab and may be at risk of disease. Concern over possible exposure to the material was first raised in November 2008, when a box containing beryllium was received at the laboratory's short-term storage facility.Sony VAIO VGN-CR21Z/R Battery
Although beryllium (Be) has 12 known isotopes, only one of these isotopes (Be) is stable and a primordial nuclide. As such, it is considered a monoisotopic element. It is also a mononuclidic element, because its other isotopes are short-lived that none are primordial and their abundance is very low.Sony VAIO VGN-CR220E/R Battery
Most 9Be in the universe is thought to be formed by cosmic ray nucleosynthesis from cosmic ray spallation in the period between the Big Bang and the formation of the solar system.
Of the 11 radioisotopes of beryllium, the most stable are 10Be with a half-life of 1.39 million years and 7Be with a half-life of 53.22 days. Sony VAIO VGN-CR23/B Battery
All other radioisotopes have half-lives under 13.85 seconds, most under 20 milliseconds. The least stable isotope is 6Be, with a half-life measured as 92 keV.
Beryllium is unique as being the only monoisotopic element with an even number of protons. It is also the only one with an odd number of neutrons. Sony VAIO VGN-CR23/L Battery
There are 20 other monoisotopic elements (fluorine, sodium, aluminum, phosphorus, scandium, manganese, cobalt, arsenic, yttrium, niobium, rhodium, iodine, cesium, praseodymium, terbium, holmium, thulium, gold, bismuth, and francium) but all have odd atomic numbers, and even numbers of neutrons.Sony VAIO VGN-CR23/N Battery
The natural light-element ratio of equal protons and neutron numbers is prevented in beryllium by the extreme instability of 8
Be toward double-alpha decay, which is favored due to the extremely tight binding of 4
He nuclei. The half-life for the decay of 8
Be is only 6.7(17)×10?17 seconds.
Beryllium is prevented from having a stable isotope with 4 protons and 6 neutrons by the very large mismatch in proton/neutron ratio for such a light element. Nevertheless, this isotope, 10
Be, has a half-life of 1.39 million years, which indicates unusual stability for a light isotope with such a large neutron/proton imbalance.Sony VAIO VGN-CR23/P Battery
Still other possible beryllium isotopes have even more severe mismatches in neutron and proton number, and thus are even less stable.
The isotopes 7
Be, with a half-life of 53 days, and 10
Be are both cosmogenic nuclides because they are made on a recent timescale in the solar system by cosmic ray spallations, like 14
C. Sony VAIO VGN-CR23/R Battery
These two radioisotopes of beryllium in the atmosphere track the sun spot cycle and solar activity, since this affects the magnetic field that shields the Earth from cosmic rays. The rate at which the short-lived 7
Be is transferred from the air to the ground is controlled in part by the weather.Sony VAIO VGN-CR23/W Battery
AlBeMet® is the trade name of the Materion Brush Beryllium & Composites (formerly known as Brush Wellman) company for a beryllium and aluminium composite materialderived by a powder metallurgy process. AlBeMet® is formed by hot consolidating gas atomized prealloyed powder.Sony VAIO VGN-CR240E/B Battery
Each powder particle contains aluminium between beryllium dendrites producing a uniform microstructure. Since beryllium is the second least dense elemental metal, these alloys are significantly less dense than aluminium.
Be-Al alloys are primarily of interest to the aerospace industry, due to the weight advantage they provide. They are currently used in satellites.Sony VAIO VGN-CR240N/B Battery
Due to the high toxicity of beryllium the machining has to be conducted with caution to prevent exposure of the workers.
Basic properties
AlBeMet® has a density of 2.071 g/cm³ (0.07482 lb/in³).
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES The mechanical properties of AM162 have been extensively characterized in all three-product forms. But a significant design database has been developed for the extruded product form.Sony VAIO VGN-CR25G/N Battery
The extruded bar is fabricated by Cold Isostatic Pressing (CIPing) the isotropic spherical aluminum-beryllium powder into semi-dense billets and then canning the billet for subsequent extrusion with a minimum of a 4:1 reduction ratio. Mechanical properties are minimum values at room temperature. Sony VAIO VGN-CR290EAL Battery
Wrought mechanical properties for extrusions are in the longitudinal direction. Transverse properties are generally lower. A number of standard extrusion dies are available. Rolled product is available in a thickness range of 0.063” to 0.313” x 25” (0.16 to 0.795 cm x 63.5 cm) length time’s width dependent on gauge.Sony VAIO VGN-CR290EAN Battery
Mechanical properties for HIP’d, extruded, and/or rolled AlBe metal matrix composites are in the annealed condition.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES 1. High modulus-to-density ratio, 3.8 times that of aluminum or steel, minimizes flexure and reduces the chance of mechanically induced failure. 2.Sony VAIO VGN-CR290EAP Battery
Thermal conductivity of approximately 210 W/m•K exceeds by about 25% that of common aluminum metal matrix composites such as Al 6061. 3. The CTE of 13.9 ppm/K matches that of the ceramic chip carriers (alumina has CTE of ~8ppm/K) more closely than does aluminum, which has a CTE of 24ppm/K. 4. Sony VAIO VGN-CR290EAR Battery
The stiffness and low density of AlBeMet® are beneficial in aircraft, where high loads generated during tight maneuvering can cause flexure of circuit boards, and subsequent mechanical failure.
FATIGUE PROPERTIES Is Cyclic fatigue critical to the life cycle of your component? Sony VAIO VGN-CR290EAW Battery
The fatigue properties of AlBeMet® extruded material have been tested using the Krause rotating beam fatigue test utilizing fully reversed cycles with a R= +0.1. The fatigue limit, 1 x 10-7 cycles was about 207 MPa (30Ksi) in the longitudinal direction and 165 MPa (25 Ksi) in the transverse direction.Sony VAIO VGN-CR29XN/B Battery
This property is approximately 75% of the minimum RT yield strength, which is two times that of typical fatigue properties of 6061T6 aluminum.
THERMAL PROPERTIES Most important fact in Surface Mount Technology (SMT) circuit board cores is coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE).Sony VAIO VGN-CR305E/RC Battery
The better the CTE match, the less strain imposed on solder joints. Less strain translates into better fatigue life for solder joints and longer life for the board. Thermal management capabilities, characterized by the thermal conductivity and heat capacity, have also been found to be important factors.Sony VAIO VGN-CR31S/D Battery
E-Material, also called E Material, is a metal matrix composite consisting of beryllium matrix with beryllium oxide particles. It has high thermal conductivity(210-230 W/m K), and its thermal expansion can be adjusted to match other materials, e.g. silicon and gallium arsenide chips and various ceramics.Sony VAIO VGN-CR323/W Battery
It is chiefly used in microelectronics as substrate for power semiconductor devices and high density multi-chip modules, where it aids with removal of waste heat. E-materials have low weight and high strength, making them especially suitable for aerospace technology. Their high elastic modulus is favorable for absorbing vibrations and lowering material fatigue of attached modules and wire bonds.Sony VAIO VGN-CR33 Battery
Several variants exist:
- E-20, containing 80 vol.% of beryllium and 20 vol.% (25.8-32.25 w.%) beryllium oxide. Its thermal conductivity is 210 W/(m·K). Its thermal expansion coefficient is 8.7. Its density at 25 °C is 2.045 g/cm3.
- E-40, containing 60 vol.% of beryllium and 40 vol.% (49.5-54.8 w.%) beryllium oxide. Its thermal conductivity is 220 W/(m·K). Its thermal expansion coefficient is 7.5. Its density at 25 °C is 2.277 g/cm3. Sony VAIO VGN-CR382 Battery
- E-60, containing 40 vol.% of beryllium and 60 vol.% (69.4-73.2 w.%) beryllium oxide. Its thermal conductivity is 230 W/(m·K). Its thermal expansion coefficient is 6.1. Its density at 25 °C is 2.513 g/cm3.
E-materials are prepared by impact grinding and then hot isostatic pressing into a block. Sony VAIO VGN-CR490EBL Battery
The block is then sliced to cards, sawn to required shape, polished, machined, and optionally plated with e.g. nickel, cadmium, chrome, silver, copper, or gold. Without coatings, the corrosion resistance of E-materials is similar to aluminium.Sony VAIO VGN-CR490EBN Battery
E-materials are used in aerospace technology, e.g. as laminated multi-chip modules in Iridium and Globalstar satellites, as heat sinks, and in avionics of F-22 Raptor, F-16 Fighting Falcon, F/A-18 Hornet, and the Joint Strike Fighter. It is also used in SEM-E modules and printed wiring boards.Sony VAIO VGN-CR490EBP Battery
Care has to be taken during machining and handling of E-materials, as beryllium and its compounds are toxic.
Gold-tin and gold-germanium alloys can be used for brazing with kovar or CuMo and other electronics packaging alloys.Sony VAIO VGN-CR490EBR Battery
A similar material is Dymalloy, with copper-silver alloy instead of beryllium and diamond instead of beryllium oxide, or AlSiC, aluminium with silicon carbide. Other materials are copper reinforced with carbon fiber, diamond-reinforced aluminium, reinforced carbon-carbon, and pyrolytic graphite.Sony VAIO VGN-CR490EBT Battery
Another similar material is AlBeMet®, a metal-matrix composite of aluminium and beryllium.
Glucydur is the trade name of a metal alloy with a low coefficient of thermal expansion, used for making balance wheels and other parts of mechanical watches.Sony VAIO VGN-CR490EBW Battery
Glucydur is a beryllium bronze; an alloy of beryllium, copper and iron. In addition to its low coefficient of thermal expansion, its hardness (400 Brinell), nonmagnetizability, and resistance to deformation and damage make it suited for making precision parts that must have high dimensional stability. Glucydur is also resistant to corrosion; it is rather inert chemically.Sony VAIO VGN-CR50B/W Battery
Glucydur was developed about the same time with another non-magnetic material, Nivarox.
Basic beryllium acetate is the chemical compound with the formula Be4O(O2CCH3)6. Although this compound has no applications and has been only lightly studied, it adopts a distinctive structure.Sony VAIO VGN-CR51B/W Battery
"Basic acetates" consist of an ensemble of metal atoms, a central oxide atom, and an exterior of acetate groups. Another family of basic acetates are trimetallic with the formula M3O(O2CCH3)6(H2O)3 (M = Cr, Fe, Ru). Mixed metal members of this family also exist.
Beryllide is an intermetallic compound of beryllium with other metals, e.g. zirconium, tantalum, titanium, nickel, or cobalt.Sony VAIO VGN-CR520E/J Battery
Beryllides of cobalt and nickel have metallurgical importance as the precipitated phase in beryllium copper alloys.
In nuclear technology, beryllides are investigated as neutron multipliers.
Iron beryllide (FeBe5) fibers in iron aluminide matrix are investigated as a composite material.Sony VAIO VGN-CR52B/W Battery
Beryllium carbonate is a chemical compound with the chemical formula BeCO3. There are three forms reported, anhydrous, a tetrahydrate and basic beryllium carbonate. The anhydrous form is reported to be unstable, decomposing to BeO and carbon dioxide, and requiring storage under CO2.Sony VAIO VGN-CR590EBL Battery
The tetrahydrate is said to be formed when CO2 is bubbled through a solution of Be(OH)2 and is also reported to be similarly unstable. Basic beryllium carbonate is a mixed salt, which can be prepared by the reaction of beryllium sulfate and ammonium carbonate, and contains both carbonate and hydroxide ions, with formula Be2CO3(OH)2.Sony VAIO VGN-CR590EBN Battery
It is believed that in the older literature this is probably what was referred to as beryllium carbonate.
The structure of solid BeF2 resembles that for silicon dioxide. Be2+ centers are four coordinate and tetrahedral. Sony VAIO VGN-CR590EBP Battery
Solid BeF2 adopts a number of polymeric structures analogous to those adopted by SiO2 namely ?-quartz, ?-quartz, crystobalite andtridymite, and its reactions with fluorides are quite analogous to the reactions of SiO2 with oxides. An analogy exists between BeF2 and AlF3: both adopt extended structures at mild temperature. BeF2 is considered to be highly covalent.Sony VAIO VGN-CR590EBR Battery
Gaseous BeF2 is found in the gas-phase above 1160 °C. Like the isoelectronic gases CO2 and SiO2, it is a linear molecule. The Be-F distance of 177 pm.[4] The difference between the ambient temperature structures of BeF2 (rock-like solid) and CO2 (gas) reflects the low tendency of alkali metals to form multiple bonds.Sony VAIO VGN-CR590EBT Battery
Molten BeF2 resembles water in some ways, since it is a triatomic molecule with strong interactions via Be—F—Be bonds. As in water, the density of BeF2 decreases near its melting point. Liquid (molten) beryllium fluoride also has a fluctuating tetrahedral structure.Sony VAIO VGN-CR590EBW Battery
Beryllonite is a rare sodium beryllium phosphate mineral with formula NaBePO4. The tabular to prismatic monoclinic crystals vary from colorless to white or pale yellowish, and are transparent with a vitreous lustre. Twinning is common and occurs in several forms. It exhibits perfect cleavage in one direction. Sony VAIO VGN-CR60B/L Battery
The hardness is 5.5 to 6 and the specific gravity is 2.8.Refractive indices are n? = 1.552, n? = 1.558 and n? = 1.561. A few crystals have been cut and faceted, but, as the refractive index is no higher than that of quartz, they do not make very brilliant gemstones.Sony VAIO VGN-CR60B/P Battery
It occurs as a secondary beryllium mineral in granitic and alkalic pegmatites. It was first described from complex crystals and as broken fragments in the disintegrated material of a granitic vein at Stoneham, Oxford County, Maine where it is associated with feldspar, smoky quartz, beryl and columbite. Sony VAIO VGN-CR60B/R Battery
It was discovered by James Dwight Dana in 1888, and named beryllonite for its beryllium content.
Bromellite, whose name derives from the Swedish chemist Magnus von Bromell (1670–1731), is a white oxide mineral, found in complex pegmatitic manganese-iron deposits, but is more frequently made synthetically. This is a rare mineral to encounter in its natural state, but it has been made synthetically for over 40 years.Sony VAIO VGN-CR61B/L Battery
Bromellite, as a beryllium-containing mineral, has some uses. Industrially, natural specimens have the potential to be an ore of beryllium. It is one of the reagents that can be used in the manufacture of artificial emeralds. As an additive, bromellite confers high mechanical strength and very high thermal conductivity. Sony VAIO VGN-CR61B/N Battery
In nuclear reactors, it is used as amoderator for fast neutrons. Ceramics containing bromellite are used in electronics, as well as crucibles for the melting ofuranium and thorium. Bromellite, both natural and synthetic, is also used as a gemstone or as a collector's mineral.Sony VAIO VGN-CR61B/P Battery
As agemstone bromellite is extremely rare. To date there has been found only one crystal that is large enough to be cut. In 2000 Dunil Palitha Gunasekara of Ratnapura, Sri Lanka purchased a rough colorless 17.77-ct crystal from Ratnapura. He cut it into 15 pieces, of which 3 pieces with 2.80, 1.92 and 0.68 ct were sent to the GIA laboratory for further testing since he thought them to be Johachiodolite at first. Sony VAIO VGN-CR61B/R Battery
These gemstones are the first reported examples of faceted gem-quality Bromellite.
Euclase is a beryllium aluminium hydroxide silicate mineral (BeAlSiO4(OH)). It crystallizes in the monoclinic crystal systemand is typically massive to fibrous as well as in slender prismatic crystals. It is related to beryl (Be3Al2Si6O18) and other beryllium minerals. It is a product of the decomposition of beryl in pegmatites.Sony VAIO VGN-CR62B/L Battery
Euclase crystals are noted for their blue color, ranging from very pale to dark blue. The mineral may also be colorless, white, or light green. Cleavage is perfect, parallel to the clinopinacoid, and this suggested to René Just Haüy the name euclase, from the Greek ??, easily, and ??????, fracture. Sony VAIO VGN-CR62B/N Battery
The ready cleavage renders the stone fragile with a tendency to chip, and thus detracts from its use for personal ornament. When cut it resembles certain kinds of beryl and topaz, from which it may be distinguished by its specific gravity (3.1). Its hardness (7.5) is rather less than that of topaz.Sony VAIO VGN-CR62B/P Battery
It was first reported in 1792 from the Orenburg district in the southern Urals, Russia, where it is found with topaz andchrysoberyl in the gold-bearing gravels of the Sanarka. Its type locality is Ouro Prêto, Minas Gerais, Southeast Region,Brazil, where it occurs with topaz. It is met with as a rarity in the mica-schist of the Rauris in the Austrian Alps.Sony VAIO VGN-CR62B/R Battery
Gadolinite is a silicate mineral which consists principally of the silicates of cerium, lanthanum, neodymium, yttrium,beryllium, and iron with the formula (Ce,La,Nd,Y)2FeBe2Si2O10. It is called gadolinite-(Ce) or gadolinite-(Y) depending on the prominence of the variable element composition (namely, Y if it has more yttrium, and Ce if it has more cerium). Sony VAIO VGN-CR70B/W Battery
It may contain 35.48% yttria sub-group rare earths, 2.17% ceria earths, up to 11.6% BeO and traces of thorium. It is found in Sweden, Norway, and the USA (Texas and Colorado).
Characteristics
Gadolinite is fairly rare and typically occurs as well-formed crystals. It is nearly black in color and has a vitreousluster. Sony VAIO VGN-CR71B/W Battery
Its hardness is between 6.5 and 7, and its specific gravity is between 4.0 and 4.7. It fractures in a conchoidalpattern. The mineral's streak is grayish-green. It is also pyrognomic, which means that it becomes incandescent at a relatively low temperature.Sony VAIO VGN-CR72B/W Battery
Name and discovery
Gadolinite was named in 1800 for Johan Gadolin, the Finnish mineralogist-chemist who first isolated an oxide of the rare earth element yttrium from the mineral in 1792. The rare earth gadolinium was also named for him. However, gadolinite does not contain more than trace amounts of gadolinium.Sony VAIO VGN-CR90HS Battery
When Gadolin analyzed this mineral, he missed an opportunity to discover a second element: what he thought was aluminium (alumina) was in fact an element that would not be officially discovered until 1798: beryllium (beryllia).
Pezzottaite, marketed under the name raspberyl or raspberry beryl, is a newly identified mineral species, first recognized by the International Mineralogical Association in September 2003. Sony VAIO VGN-CR90NS Battery
Pezzottaite is a caesium analogue of beryl, asilicate of caesium, beryllium, lithium and aluminium, with the chemical formula Cs(Be2Li)Al2Si6O18. Named after Italiangeologist and mineralogist Federico Pezzotta, pezzottaite was first thought to be either red beryl or a new variety of beryl ("caesium beryl");Sony VAIO VGN-CR90S Battery
unlike other beryls, however, pezzottaite contains lithium and crystallizes in the trigonal crystal system rather than the hexagonal system.
Colours include shades of raspberry red to orange-red and pink. Recovered from miarolitic cavities in the granitic pegmatitefields of Fianarantsoa province, southern Madagascar,Sony VAIO VGN-CR92HS Battery
the pezzottaite crystals were small—no more than about 7 cm in their widest dimension—and tabular or equant in habit, and few in number, most being heavily included with growth tubes and liquid feathers. Approximately 10 per cent of the rough material would also exhibit chatoyancy when polished. Most cut pezzottaite gems are under one carat (200 mg) in weight and rarely exceed two carats (400 mg).Sony VAIO VGN-CR92NS Battery
With the exception of hardness (8 on Mohs scale), the physical and optical properties of pezzottaite—i.e., specific gravity3.10 (average), refractive index 1.601 to 1.620, birefringence 0.008 to 0.011 (uniaxial negative)—are all higher than typical beryl. Pezzottiate is brittle with a conchoidal to irregular fracture, and streaks white. Sony VAIO VGN-CR92S Battery
Like beryl, it has an imperfect to fair basal cleavage. Pleochroism is moderate, from pink-orange or purplish pink to pinkish purple. Pezzottaite's absorption spectrum, as seen by a hand-held (direct vision) spectroscope, features a band at 485–500 nm with some specimens showing additional weak lines at 465 and 477 nm and a weak band at 550 to 580 nm.Sony VAIO VGN-CS118E/Q Battery
Most (if not all) of the Madagascan deposits have since been exhausted. Pezzottaite has been found in at least one other locality, Afghanistan: this material was first thought to be caesium-rich morganite (pink beryl). Like morganite and bixbite, pezzottaite is believed to owe its colour to radiation-induced colour centres involving trivalent manganese. Sony VAIO VGN-CS118E/R Battery
Pezzottaite will lose its colour if heated to 450°C for two hours, but the colour can be restored with gamma irradiation.
Phenakite or phenacite is a fairly rare nesosilicate mineral consisting of beryllium orthosilicate, Be2SiO4. Occasionally used as a gemstone, phenakite occurs as isolated crystals, which are rhombohedral with parallel-faced hemihedrism, and are either lenticular or prismatic in habit:Sony VAIO VGN-CS118E/W Battery
the lenticular habit is determined by the development of faces of several obtuse rhombohedra and the absence of prism faces. There is no cleavage, and the fracture is conchoidal. The Mohs hardness is high, being 7.5 - 8; the specific gravity is 2.96. The crystals are sometimes perfectly colorless and transparent, but more often they are greyish or yellowish and only translucent; Sony VAIO VGN-CS11S/P Battery
occasionally they are pale rose-red. In general appearance the mineral is not unlike quartz, for which indeed it has been mistaken.
Occurrence
Phenakite is found in high-temperature pegmatite veins and in mica-schists associated with quartz, chrysoberyl, apatite and topaz.Sony VAIO VGN-CS11S/Q Battery
It has long been known from the emerald and chrysoberyl mine on the Takovaya stream, near Yekaterinburg in the Urals of Russia, where large crystals occur in mica-schist. It is also found with topaz and amazon-stone in the granite of the Ilmen Mountains in the southern Urals and of the Pikes Peak region in Colorado (USA). Sony VAIO VGN-CS11S/W Battery
Large crystals of prismatic habit have been found in a feldspar quarry at Kragero in Norway. Framont near Schirmeck in Alsace is another well-known locality. Still larger crystals, measuring 1 to 2 in. in diameter and weighing 28 lb (13 kg). have been found at Greenwood in Maine, but these are pseudomorphs of quartz after phenakite.Sony VAIO VGN-CS11Z/R Battery
For gem purposes the stone is cut in the brilliant form, of which there are two fine examples, weighing 34 and 43 carats (6.8 and 8.6 g), in the British Museum. The indices of refraction are higher than those of quartz, beryl or topaz; a faceted phenakite is consequently rather brilliant and may sometimes be mistaken for diamond.Sony VAIO VGN-CS120J/P Battery
Tugtupite is a rare beryllium aluminium tectosilicate. It also contains sodium and chlorine and has the formulaNa4AlBeSi4O12Cl. Tugtupite is a member of the silica deficient feldspathoid mineral group. It occurs in high alkali intrusiveigneous rocks.
Tugtupite is tenebrescent, sharing much of its crystal structure with sodalite, and the two minerals are occasionally found together in the same sample.Sony VAIO VGN-CS120J/Q Battery
Tugtupite occurs as vitreous, transparent to translucent masses of tetragonal crystals and is commonly found in white, pink, to crimson, and even blue and green. It has a Mohs hardness of 4 and a specific gravity of 2.36. Tugtupite is also a non-radioactivesubstance. It fluoresces crimson under ultraviolet radiation.Sony VAIO VGN-CS120J/R Battery
It was first found in 1962 at Tugtup agtakôrfia Ilimaussaq intrusive complex of southwest Greenland. It has also been found atMont-Saint-Hilaire in Quebec and in the Lovozero Massif of the Kola Peninsula in Russia
The name is derived from the Greenlandic Inuit word for reindeer (tuttu), and means "reindeer blood."Sony VAIO VGN-CS190JTB Battery
The U.S. Geological Survey reports that in Nepal, tugtupite (as well as jasper and nephrite) were found extensively in most of the rivers from the Bardia to the Dang.
Emerald is a variety of the mineral beryl (Be3Al2(SiO3)6) colored green by trace amounts of chromium and sometimesvanadium.Sony VAIO VGN-CS190JTP Battery
Beryl has a hardness of 7.5–8 on the 10 point Mohs scale of mineral hardness. Most emeralds are highlyincluded, so their toughness (resistance to breakage) is classified as generally poor.
Etymology
The word "Emerald" is derived (via Old French: Esmeraude and Middle English: Emeraude), from Vulgar Latin: Esmaralda/Esmaraldus, a variant of Latin Smaragdus, which originated in Greek: ????????? (smaragdos; "green gem");Sony VAIO VGN-CS190JTQ Battery
its original source being either the Hebrew word ?????? izmargad meaning "emerald" or "green" or the Sanskrit word ??????? marakata meaning "green." The name could also be related to the Semitic word baraq (?????? ;???????; "lightning" or "shine") (cf.Hebrew: ???? bareqeth and Arabic: ??? barq "lightning"). Sony VAIO VGN-CS190JTR Battery
It is the same source for the names Persian (????? zomorrod), Turkish(zümrüt), Sanskrit (??????? maragdam), Telugu (Paccha), Georgian (????????; zurmukhti), Russian (???????; izumrud) and Armenian zmruxt.
Properties determining value
Emeralds, like all colored gemstones, are graded using four basic parameters – the four Cs of Connoisseurship: Color, Cut, Clarityand Crystal. Sony VAIO VGN-CS190JTW Battery
The last C, crystal is simply used as a synonym that begins with C for transparency or what gemologists call diaphaneity. Before the 20th century, jewelers used the term water as in "a gem of the finest water" to express the combination of two qualities, color and crystal. Normally, in the grading of colored gemstones, color is by far the most important criterion. Sony VAIO VGN-CS190NAB Battery
However, in the grading of emerald, crystal is considered a close second. Both are necessary conditions. A fine emerald must possess not only a pure verdant green hue as described below, but also a high degree oftransparency to be considered a top gem.
In the 1960s the American jewelry industry changed the definition of 'emerald' to include the green vanadium-bearing beryl as emerald.Sony VAIO VGN-CS190NAC Battery
As a result, vanadium emeralds purchased as emeralds in the United States are not recognized as such in the UK and Europe. In America, the distinction between traditional emeralds and the new vanadium kind is often reflected in the use of terms such as 'Colombian Emerald.' Sony VAIO VGN-CS190NAD Battery
Color
Scientifically speaking, color is divided into three components: hue, saturation and tone. Yellow, blue and red the hues found adjacent to green on the spectral color wheel, are the normal secondary hues found in emerald.Sony VAIO VGN-CS190NBB Battery
Emeralds occur in hues ranging from yellow-green to blue-green. The primary hue must, of course, be green. Only gems that are medium to dark in tone are considered emerald. Light-toned gems are known by the species name, green beryl. In addition, the hue must be bright (vivid).Sony VAIO VGN-CS190NCA Battery
Gray is the normal saturation modifier or mask found in emerald. A grayish green hue is a dull green.
Clarity
Emerald tends to have numerous inclusions and surface breaking fissures. Unlike diamond, where the loupe standard, i.e. 10X magnification, is used to grade clarity, emerald is graded by eye. Sony VAIO VGN-CS190NCB Battery
Thus, if an emerald has no visible inclusions to the eye (assuming normal visual acuity) it is considered flawless. Stones that lack surface breaking fissures are extremely rare and therefore almost all emeralds are treated, "oiled", to enhance the apparent clarity.Sony VAIO VGN-CS190NCC Battery
Eye-clean stones of a vivid primary green hue (as described above) with no more than 15% of any secondary hue or combination (either blue or yellow) of a medium-dark tone command the highest prices. This relative crystal non-uniformity makes emeralds more likely than other gemstones to be cut into cabochons, rather than faceted shapes.Sony VAIO VGN-CS50B/W Battery
Treatments
Most emeralds are oiled as part of the post lapidary process, in order to improve their clarity. Cedar oil, having a similar refractive index, is often used in this generally accepted practice. Other liquids, including synthetic oils and polymers with refractive indexes close to that of emerald such as Opticon are also used. Sony VAIO VGN-CS51B/W Battery
TheU.S. Federal Trade Commission requires the disclosure of this treatment when a treated emerald is sold. The use of oil is traditional and largely accepted by the gem trade. Other treatments, for example the use of green-tinted oil, are not acceptable in the trade. The laboratory community has recently standardized the language for grading the clarity of emeralds. Sony VAIO VGN-CS52JB/W Battery
Gems are graded on a four step scale; none, minor, moderate and highly enhanced. Note that these categories reflect levels of enhancement not clarity. A gem graded none on the enhancement scale may still exhibit visible inclusions. Laboratories tend to apply these criteria differently. Sony VAIO VGN-CS60B/P Battery
Some gem labs consider the mere presence of oil or polymers to constitute enhancement. Others may ignore traces of oil if the presence of the material does not materially improve the look of the gemstone.
Given that the vast majority of all emeralds are treated as described above, and the fact that two stones that appear to be similar in quality may actually be quite far apart in treatment level, Sony VAIO VGN-CS60B/Q Battery
a consumer considering a purchase of an expensive emerald is well advised to insist upon a treatment report from a reputable gemological laboratory. All other factors being equal, a high quality emerald with an enhancement level graded moderate should cost 40–50% less than an identical stone graded none.Sony VAIO VGN-CS60B/R Battery
Emerald localities
Emeralds in antiquity[when?] were mined by the Egyptians and in India and Austria.
A rare type of emerald known as a trapiche emerald is occasionally found in the mines of Colombia. A trapiche emerald exhibits a "star" pattern; it has raylike spokes of dark carbon impurities that give the emerald a six-pointed radial pattern.Sony VAIO VGN-CS61B/P Battery
Emeralds come from three main emerald mining areas in Colombia: Muzo, Coscuez, and Chivor. Emeralds are also found in other countries, such asAfghanistan, Australia, Austria, Brazil, Bulgaria, Cambodia, Canada, China, Egypt, Ethiopia, France, Germany, India, Italy, Kazakhstan,Madagascar,
Mozambique,Sony VAIO VGN-CS61B/Q Battery
Namibia, Nigeria, Norway, Pakistan, Russia, Somalia, South Africa, Spain, Switzerland, Tanzania, United States,Zambia and Zimbabwe. In the US, emeralds have been found in Connecticut, Montana, Nevada, North Carolina and South Carolina.[1] In 1998 emeralds were discovered in the Yukon. Sony VAIO VGN-CS61B/R Battery
Emerald is a rare and valuable gemstone and, as such, it has provided the incentive for developing synthetic emeralds. Both hydrothermal and flux-growth synthetics have been produced, and a method has been developed for producing an emerald overgrowth on colorless beryl. Sony VAIO VGN-CS62JB/P Battery
The first commercially successful emerald synthesis process was that of Carroll Chatham. Because Chatham's emeralds do not have any water and contain traces of vanadate, molybdenum and vanadium, a lithium vanadate flux process is probably involved. The other large producer of flux emeralds was Pierre Gilson Sr., which has been on the market since 1964.Sony VAIO VGN-CS62JB/Q Battery
Gilson's emeralds are usually grown on natural colorless beryl seeds which become coated on both sides. Growth occurs at the rate of 1 mm per month, a typical seven-month growth run producing emerald crystals of 7 mm of thickness. Gilson sold his production laboratory to a Japanese firm in the 1980s, but production has ceased since; so did Chatham's, after the San Francisco earthquake in 1989.Sony VAIO VGN-CS62JB/R Battery
Hydrothermal synthetic emeralds have been attributed to IG Farben, Nacken, Tairus, and others, but the first satisfactory commercial product was that of Johann Lechleitner of Innsbruck, Austria, which appeared on the market in the 1960s. Sony VAIO VGN-CS71B/W Battery
These stones were initially sold under the names "Emerita" and "Symeralds", and they were grown as a thin layer of emerald on top of natural colorless beryl stones. Although not much is known about the original process, it is assumed that Leichleitner emeralds were grown in acid conditions.Sony VAIO VGN-CS72JB/W Battery
Later, from 1965 to 1970, theLinde Division of Union Carbide produced completely synthetic emeralds by hydrothermal synthesis. According to their patents, acidic conditions are essential to prevent the chromium (which is used as the colorant) from precipitating.Sony VAIO VGN-CS90HS Battery
Also, it is important that the silicon-containing nutrient be kept away from the other ingredients to prevent nucleation and confine growth to the seed crystals. Growth occurs by a diffusion-reaction process, assisted by convection. The largest producer of hydrothermal emeralds today is Tairus in Russia. Sony VAIO VGN-CS90NS Battery
They have succeeded to synthesize emeralds that have similar chemical composition as emeralds in alkaline deposits in Colombia, hence they are called “Colombian Created Emeralds” or “Tairus Created Emeralds”. Luminescence in ultraviolet light is considered a supplementary test when making a natural vs. synthetic determination, as many, but not all, natural emeralds are inert to ultraviolet light. Many synthetics are also UV inert. Sony VAIO VGN-CS90S Battery
Synthetic emeralds are often referred to as "created", as their chemical and gemological composition is the same as their natural counterparts. The U.S. Federal Trade Commission (FTC) has very strict regulations as to what can and what cannot be called "synthetic" stone. Sony VAIO VGN-CS91HS Battery
The FTC says: "§ 23.23(c) It is unfair or deceptive to use the word "laboratory-grown," "laboratory-created," "[manufacturer name]-created," or "synthetic" with the name of any natural stone to describe any industry product unless such industry product has essentially the same optical, physical, and chemical properties as the stone named."Sony VAIO VGN-CS91NS Battery
Emerald in different cultures, and emerald lore
Emerald is regarded as the traditional birthstone for May, as well as the traditional gemstone for the astrological signs ofTaurus, Cancer and sometimes Gemini. Sony VAIO VGN-CS91S Battery
One of the quainter anecdotes on emeralds was by the 16th-century historian Brantôme, who referred to the many impressive emeralds the Spanish under Cortez had brought back to Europe from Latin America. On one of Cortez's most notable emeralds he had the text engraved Inter Natos Mulierum non sur-rexit mayor Sony VAIO VGN-CS92DS Battery
("Among those born of woman there hath not arisen a greater," Matthew 11:11) which referred to John the Baptist. Brantôme considered engraving such a beautiful and simple product of nature sacrilegious and considered this act the cause for Cortez's loss of an extremely precious pearl (to which he dedicated a work, Sony VAIO VGN-CS92JS Battery
A beautiful and incomparable pearl), and even for the death of King Charles IX of France, who died soon after."The Attenbury Emeralds" is a detective story in which Lord Peter Wimsey must solve several emerald-related mysteries. In The Wizard of Oz, the Wizard lives in a city made entirely of emerald, known as the Emerald City.Sony VAIO VGN-CS92XS Battery
Emerald is regarded as the traditional birthstone for May, as well as the traditional gemstone for the astrological signs ofTaurus, Cancer and sometimes Gemini. One of the quainter anecdotes on emeralds was by the 16th-century historian Brantôme, who referred to the many impressive emeralds the Spanish under Cortez had brought back to Europe from Latin America.Sony VAIO VGN-FW11E Battery
On one of Cortez's most notable emeralds he had the text engraved Inter Natos Mulierum non sur-rexit mayor ("Among those born of woman there hath not arisen a greater," Matthew 11:11) which referred to John the Baptist. Brantôme considered engraving such a beautiful and simple product of nature sacrilegious and considered this act the cause for Cortez's loss of an extremely precious pearl (to which he dedicated a work, A beautiful and incomparable pearl),Sony VAIO VGN-FW11L Battery
and even for the death of King Charles IX of France, who died soon after. "The Attenbury Emeralds" is a detective story in which Lord Peter Wimsey must solve several emerald-related mysteries. In The Wizard of Oz, the Wizard lives in a city made entirely of emerald, known as the Emerald City.Sony VAIO VGN-FW11M Battery
Emerald is regarded as the traditional birthstone for May, as well as the traditional gemstone for the astrological signs ofTaurus, Cancer and sometimes Gemini. One of the quainter anecdotes on emeralds was by the 16th-century historian Brantôme, who referred to the many impressive emeralds the Spanish under Cortez had brought back to Europe from Latin America.Sony VAIO VGN-FW11S Battery
On one of Cortez's most notable emeralds he had the text engraved Inter Natos Mulierum non sur-rexit mayor ("Among those born of woman there hath not arisen a greater," Matthew 11:11) which referred to John the Baptist. Brantôme considered engraving such a beautiful and simple product of nature sacrilegious and considered this act the cause for Cortez's loss of an extremely precious pear Sony VAIO VGN-FW11ZU Battery
l (to which he dedicated a work, A beautiful and incomparable pearl), and even for the death of King Charles IX of France, who died soon after. "The Attenbury Emeralds" is a detective story in which Lord Peter Wimsey must solve several emerald-related mysteries. In The Wizard of Oz, the Wizard lives in a city made entirely of emerald, known as the Emerald City.Sony VAIO VGN-FW139E/H Battery
Emerald is regarded as the traditional birthstone for May, as well as the traditional gemstone for the astrological signs ofTaurus, Cancer and sometimes Gemini. One of the quainter anecdotes on emeralds was by the 16th-century historian Brantôme, who referred to the many impressive emeralds the Spanish under Cortez had brought back to Europe from Latin America. Sony VAIO VGN-FW140AE Battery
On one of Cortez's most notable emeralds he had the text engraved Inter Natos Mulierum non sur-rexit mayor ("Among those born of woman there hath not arisen a greater," Matthew 11:11) which referred to John the Baptist. Brantôme considered engraving such a beautiful and simple product of nature sacrilegious and considered this act the cause for Cortez's loss of an extremely precious pearlSony VAIO VGN-FW140D Battery
(to which he dedicated a work, A beautiful and incomparable pearl), and even for the death of King Charles IX of France, who died soon after. "The Attenbury Emeralds" is a detective story in which Lord Peter Wimsey must solve several emerald-related mysteries. In The Wizard of Oz, the Wizard lives in a city made entirely of emerald, known as the Emerald City.Sony VAIO VGN-FW140E Battery
Emerald is regarded as the traditional birthstone for May, as well as the traditional gemstone for the astrological signs ofTaurus, Cancer and sometimes Gemini. One of the quainter anecdotes on emeralds was by the 16th-century historian Brantôme, who referred to the many impressive emeralds the Spanish under Cortez had brought back to Europe from Latin America.Sony VAIO VGN-FW140E/H Battery
On one of Cortez's most notable emeralds he had the text engraved Inter Natos Mulierum non sur-rexit mayor ("Among those born of woman there hath not arisen a greater," Matthew 11:11) which referred to John the Baptist. Brantôme considered engraving such a beautiful and simple product of nature sacrilegious and considered this act the cause for Cortez's loss of an extremely precious pearl Sony VAIO VGN-FW140E/W Battery
(to which he dedicated a work, A beautiful and incomparable pearl), and even for the death of King Charles IX of France, who died soon after. "The Attenbury Emeralds" is a detective story in which Lord Peter Wimsey must solve several emerald-related mysteries. In The Wizard of Oz, the Wizard lives in a city made entirely of emerald, known as the Emerald City.Sony VAIO VGN-FW140FE Battery
Emerald is regarded as the traditional birthstone for May, as well as the traditional gemstone for the astrological signs ofTaurus, Cancer and sometimes Gemini. One of the quainter anecdotes on emeralds was by the 16th-century historian Brantôme, who referred to the many impressive emeralds the Spanish under Cortez had brought back to Europe from Latin America.Sony VAIO VGN-FW140N Battery
On one of Cortez's most notable emeralds he had the text engraved Inter Natos Mulierum non sur-rexit mayor ("Among those born of woman there hath not arisen a greater," Matthew 11:11) which referred to John the Baptist. Sony VAIO VGN-FW140N/W Battery
Brantôme considered engraving such a beautiful and simple product of nature sacrilegious and considered this act the cause for Cortez's loss of an extremely precious pearl (to which he dedicated a work, A beautiful and incomparable pearl), and even for the death of King Charles IX of France, who died soon after.Sony VAIO VGN-FW145E Battery
"The Attenbury Emeralds" is a detective story in which Lord Peter Wimsey must solve several emerald-related mysteries. In The Wizard of Oz, the Wizard lives in a city made entirely of emerald, known as the Emerald City.Sony VAIO VGN-FW145E/W Battery,Sony VAIO VGN-FW160AE Battery,Sony VAIO VGN-FW160D Battery,Sony VAIO VGN-FW160E Battery,Sony VAIO VGN-FW160E/H Battery
No comments:
Post a Comment