République du Mali

Mali , officially the Republic of Mali (French: République du Mali, French pronunciation: [maˈli]), is a landlocked country in Western Africa. Mali borders Algeria on the north, Niger on the east, Burkina Faso and the Côte d'Ivoire on the south, Guinea on the south-west, and Senegal and Mauritania on the west. HP Pavilion DV9000 Battery

Its size is just over 1,240,000 km² with a population of 14.5 million. Its capital is Bamako. Mali consists of eight regions and its borders on the north reach deep into the middle of the Sahara, while the country's southern part, where the majority of inhabitants live, features theNiger and Sénégal rivers. HP Pavilion DV9000EA Battery

The country's economic structure centers around agriculture and fishing. Some of Mali's natural resources are gold, uranium, livestock, and salt. About half the population live below the international poverty line of US$1.25 a day.^[5] HP Pavilion DV9000T Battery

Present-day Mali was once part of three West African empires that controlled trans-Saharan trade: the Ghana Empire, theMali Empire (from which Mali is named), and the Songhai Empire. In the late 19th century, during the Scramble for Africa, France seized control of Mali making it a part of French Sudan. HP Pavilion DV9000Z Battery

French Sudan (then known as the Sudanese Republic) joined with Senegal in 1959, achieving independence in 1960 as the Mali Federation. Shortly thereafter, following Senegal's withdrawal from the federation, the Sudanese Republic declared itself the independent Republic of Mali. HP Pavilion DV9001CA Battery

After a long period of one-party rule, a 1991 coup led to the writing of a new constitution and the establishment of Mali as a democratic, multi-party state. On 22 March, 2012, a group of junior soldiers seized control of the country's presidential palace and declared the government dissolved and its constitution suspended. ^[6] HP Pavilion DV9001EA Battery

 On 6 April, 2012, rebels from theNational Movement for the Liberation of Azawad (MNLA) declared the secession of a new state, Azawad, from Mali.

Mali was once part of three famed West African empires which controlled trans-Saharan trade in gold, salt, slaves, and other precious commodities.^[8] HP Pavilion DV9001TX Battery

These Sahelian kingdomshad neither rigid geopolitical boundaries nor rigid ethnic identities.^[8] The earliest of these empires was the Ghana Empire, which was dominated by the Soninke, a Mande-speaking people.^[8] The empire expanded throughout West Africa from the 8th century until 1078, when it was conquered by the Almoravids.^[9] HP Pavilion DV9001XX Battery

The Mali Empire later formed on the upper Niger River, and reached the height of power in the 14th century.^[9] Under the Mali Empire, the ancient cities of Djenné andTimbuktu were centers of both trade and Islamic learning.^[9] The empire later declined as a result of internal intrigue, ultimately being supplanted by the Songhai Empire.^[9] HP Pavilion DV9003CA Battery

The Songhai people originated in current northwestern Nigeria. The Songhai had long been a major power in West Africa subject to the Mali Empire's rule.^[9]

In the late 14th century, the Songhai gradually gained independence from the Mali Empire and expanded, ultimately subsuming the entire eastern portion of the Mali Empire.^[9] HP Pavilion DV9003EA Battery

The Songhai Empire's eventual collapse was largely the result of a Moroccan invasion in 1591, under the command of Judar Pasha.^[9] The fall of the Songhai Empire marked the end of the region's role as a trading crossroads.^[9] Following the establishment of sea routes by the European powers, the trans-Saharan trade routes lost significance. HP Pavilion DV9003TX Battery

One of the worst famines in the region's recorded history occurred in the 18th century. According to John Iliffe, "The worst crises were in the 1680s, when famine extended from the Senegambian coast to the Upper Nile and 'many sold themselves for slaves, only to get a sustenance', and especially in 1738–56, HP Pavilion DV9003XX Battery

when West Africa's greatest recorded subsistence crisis, due to drought and locusts, reportedly killed half the population of Timbuktu."^[10]

Mali fell under the control of the French during the late 19th century.^[9] By 1905, most of the area was under firm French control as a part of French Sudan.^[9] HP Pavilion DV9004TX Battery

In early 1959, French Sudan (which changed its name to the Sudanese Republic) and Senegal united to become the Mali Federation. The Mali Federation gained independence from France on 20 June 1960.^[9] Senegal withdrew from the federation in August 1960, which allowed the Sudanese Republic to become the independent Republic of Mali on 22 September 1960. HP Pavilion DV9004XX Battery

Modibo Keïta was elected the first president.^[9] Keïta quickly established a one-party state, adopted an independent African and socialist orientation with close ties to the East, and implemented extensive nationalization of economic resources.^[9] HP Pavilion DV9005CA Battery

On 19 November 1968, following progressive economic decline, the Keïta regime was overthrown in a bloodless military coup led byMoussa Traoré,^[11] a day which is now commemorated as Liberation Day. The subsequent military-led regime, with Traoré as president, attempted to reform the economy. HP Pavilion DV9005EA Battery

However, his efforts were frustrated by political turmoil and a devastating droughtbetween 1968 to 1974,^[11] in which famine killed thousands of people.^[12] The Traoré regime faced student unrest beginning in the late 1970s and three coup attempts. However, the Traoré regime repressed all dissenters until the late 1980s.^[11] HP Pavilion DV9005TX Battery

The government continued to attempt economic reforms, and the populace became increasingly dissatisfied.^[11] In response to growing demands for multi-party democracy, the Traoré regime allowed some limited political liberalization, but refused to usher in a full-fledged democratic system.^[11] 
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In 1990, cohesive opposition movements began to emerge, and was complicated by the turbulent rise of ethnic violence in the north following the return of many Tuaregs to Mali.

Anti-government protests in 1991 led to a coup, a transitional government, and a new constitution.^[11] HP Pavilion DV9006EA Battery

Opposition to the corrupt and dictatorial regime of General Mousa Traoré grew during the 1980s. During this time, strict programs imposed to satisfy demands of the International Monetary Fund brought increased hardship upon the country's population while elites close to the government supposedly lived in growing wealth. HP Pavilion DV9006TX Battery

Peaceful student protests in January 1991 were brutally suppressed, with mass arrests and torture of leaders and participants. Scattered acts of rioting and vandalism of public buildings followed, but most actions by the dissidents remained nonviolent. HP Pavilion DV9007EA Battery

From March 22 through March 26, 1991, mass pro-democracy rallies and a nationwide strike was held in both urban and rural communities, which became known as les evenements ("the events") or the March Revolution. In Bamako, in response to mass demonstrations organized by university students and later joined by trade unionists and others, HP Pavilion DV9007TX Battery

soldiers opened fire indiscriminately on the nonviolent demonstrators. Riots broke out briefly following the shootings. Barricades as well as roadblocks were erected and Traoré declared a state of emergency and imposed a nightly curfew. HP Pavilion DV9008EA Battery

Despite an estimated loss of 300 lives over the course of four days, nonviolent protesters continued to return to Bamako each day demanding the resignation of the dictatorial president and the implementation of democratic policies.^[13] HP Pavilion DV9008EU Battery

March 26th, 1991 is the day that marks the clash between military soldiers and peaceful demonstrating students which climaxed in the massacre of dozens under the orders of then President Moussa Traoré. He and three associates were later tried and convicted and received the death sentence for their part in the decision-making of that day. HP Pavilion DV9008NR Battery

Nowadays, the day is a national holiday in order to remember the tragic events and the people that were killed.^[14] The coup is remembered as Mali's March Revolution of 1991.

By March 26, the growing refusal of soldiers to fire into the largely nonviolent protesting crowds turned into a full scale tumult,HP Pavilion DV9008TX Battery

and resulted into thousands of soldiers putting down their arms and joining the pro-democracy movement. That afternoon, Lieutenant Colonel Amadou Toumani Touré announced on the radio that he had arrested the dictatorial president, Moussa Traoré. HP Pavilion DV9009CL Battery

As a consequence, opposition parties were legalized and a national congress of civil and political groups met to draft a new democratic constitution to be approved by a national referendum.^[13]

In 1992, Alpha Oumar Konaré won Mali's first democratic, multi-party presidential election. HP Pavilion DV9009NR Battery

Upon his reelection in 1997, President Konaré pushed through political and economic reforms and fought corruption. In 2002, he was succeeded in democratic elections by Amadou Toumani Touré, a retired general, who had been the leader of the military aspect of the 1991 democratic uprising.^[15] HP Pavilion DV9009TX Battery

Although recently Mali has been listed as one of the most politically and socially stable countries in Africa,^[16] the country has been facing a major internal conflict since January 2012 led by the National Movement for the Liberation of Azawad against the Malian government.^[17] HP Pavilion DV9009US Battery

On 22 March 2012, it was reported that rebel troops from the military appeared on state TV announcing they had seized control of the country.^[18]. Unrest over the presidents handling over the conflict with the rebels was a motivating force. HP Pavilion DV9010CA Battery

However, due to the 2012 Tuareg Rebellion, the military government controls only the southern third of the country leaving the north of the country known as Azawad to MNLA rebels. The rebels control Timbuktu, 700 km from the capital.^[19] HP Pavilion DV9010EA Battery

In response, to the coup, neighbouring countries (ECOWAS) froze assets and imposed an embargo, leaving some with only days of fuel. Mali is dependent on fuel imports trucked overland from Senegal and Ivory Coast.^[20] 
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Geography

Mali is a landlocked nation in West Africa, located southwest of Algeria. It lies between latitudes 10° and 25°N, and longitudes 13°W and 5°E.

At 1,242,248 square kilometres (480,000 sq mi), including the disputed region of Azawad, Mali is the world's 24th-largest country and is comparable in size to South Africa or Angola. HP Pavilion DV9010US Battery

Most of the country lies in the southern Sahara, which produces a hot, dust-laden Sudanian savannazone.^[21] Mali is mostly flat, rising to rolling northern plains covered by sand. The Adrar des Ifoghas lies in the northeast.

The country's climate ranges from tropical in the south to arid in the north.^[21] HP Pavilion DV9011EA Battery

Most of the country receives negligible rainfall; droughts are frequent.^[21] Late June to early December is the rainy season. During this time, flooding of the Niger River is common, creating the Inner Niger Delta.^[21] The nation has considerable natural resources, with gold, uranium, phosphates, kaolinite, salt and limestonebeing most widely exploited. HP Pavilion DV9011XX Battery

Mali faces numerous environmental challenges, including desertification, deforestation, soil erosion, and inadequate supplies of potable water.

Regions and cercles

Mali is divided into eight regions (régions) and one district.^[22] HP Pavilion DV9012EA Battery

 Each region has a governor.^[23] Since Mali's regions are very large, the country is subdivided into 49 cercles and 703 communes.

Since March 2012, the Malian government has not exercised control over Tombouctou, Gao and Kidal Regions and the north-eastern portion of Mopti Region. HP Pavilion DV9012TX Battery

On 6 April 2012, the National Movement for the Liberation of Azawad unilaterally declared their secession from Mali as Azawad, an act that neither Mali nor the international community have recognised.^[25]

Politics and government

Mali is a constitutional democracy governed by the Constitution of 12 January 1992, which was amended in 1999.^[26] HP Pavilion DV9013CA Battery

The constitution provides for a separation of powers among the executive, legislative, and judicial branches of government.^[26] The system of government can be described as "semi-presidential".^[26] HP Pavilion DV9013CL Battery

Executive power is vested in a president, who is elected to a five-year term by universal suffrage and is limited to two terms.^[26][27] The president serves as a chief of state and commander in chief of the armed forces.^[26][28] A prime minister appointed by the president serves as head of government and in turn appoints the Council of Ministers.^[26][29] HP Pavilion DV9014EA Battery

The unicameral National Assembly is Mali's sole legislative body, consisting of deputies elected to five-year terms.^[30][31] Following the 2007 elections, the Alliance for Democracy and Progress held 113 of 160 seats in the assembly.^[32] The assembly holds two regular sessions each year, HP Pavilion DV9014TX Battery

during which it debates and votes on legislation that has been submitted by a member or by the government.^[30][33] Democracy-wise, things looked positive after the local elections at the end of April 2009, though significant shortcomings and attempts at manipulation still existed. HP Pavilion DV9015EA Battery

Mali's constitution provides for an independent judiciary,^[30][34] but the executive continues to exercise influence over the judiciary by virtue of power to appoint judges and oversee both judicial functions and law enforcement.^[30] Mali's highest courts are the Supreme Court, HP Pavilion DV9015TX Battery

which has both judicial and administrative powers, and a separate Constitutional Court that provides judicial review of legislative acts and serves as an election arbiter.^[30][35] Various lower courts exist, though village chiefs and elders resolve most local disputes in rural areas.^[30] HP Pavilion DV9016EA Battery

Foreign relations and military

Mali's foreign policy orientation has become increasingly pragmatic and pro-Western over time.^[36] Since the institution of a democratic form of government in 2002, Mali's relations with the West in general and with the United States in particular have improved significantly.^[36] HP Pavilion DV9016TX Battery

Mali has a longstanding yet ambivalent relationship with France, a former colonial ruler.^[36] Mali was active in regional organizations such as the African Union until its suspension over the 2012 Malian coup d'état.^[37][36] Working to control and resolve regional conflicts, such as in Côte d'Ivoire, Liberia, and Sierra Leone, is one of Mali's major foreign policy goals.^[36] HP Pavilion DV9017EA Battery

Mali feels threatened by the potential for the spillover of conflicts in neighboring states, and relations with those neighbors are often uneasy.^[36] General insecurity along borders in the north, including cross-border banditry and terrorism, remain troubling issues in regional relations.^[36] HP Pavilion DV9017TX Battery

Mali's military forces consist of an army, which includes land forces and air force,^[38] as well as the paramilitary Gendarmerie and Republican Guard, all of which are under the control of Mali's Ministry of Defense and Veterans, headed by a civilian.^[39] The military is underpaid, poorly equipped, and in need of rationalization.^[39] HP Pavilion DV9018EA Battery

Organization has suffered from the incorporation ofTuareg irregular forces into the regular military following a 1992 agreement between the government and Tuareg rebel forces.^[39]The military has generally kept a low profile since the democratic transition of 1992. HP Pavilion DV9018TX Battery

The incumbent president, Amadou Toumani Touré, is a former army general and as such reportedly enjoys widespread military support.^[39] In the annual human rights report for 2003, the U.S. Department of State rated civilian control of security forces as generally effective but noted a few "instances in which elements of the security forces acted independently of government authority".^[39] HP Pavilion DV9019EA Battery

Western powers such as the United States have also helped Mali's military with training and equipment.^[40][41]

Economy

Mali is one of the poorest countries in the world.^[42] The average worker's annual salary is approximately US$1,500.^[43] HP Pavilion DV9019TX Battery

Between 1992 and 1995, Mali implemented an economic adjustment program that resulted in economic growth and a reduction in financial imbalances. The program increased social and economic conditions, and led to Mali joining the World Trade Organization on 31 May 1995.^[44] The gross domestic product (GDP) has risen since. HP Pavilion DV9020TX Battery

In 2002, the GDP amounted to US$3.4 billion,^[45] and increased to US$5.8 billion in 2005,^[43] which amounts to an approximately 17.6% annual growth rate.

Mali's key industry is agriculture. Cotton is the country's largest crop export and is exported west throughout Senegal and the Ivory Coast. HP Pavilion DV9020XX Battery

During 2002, 620,000 tons of cotton were produced in Mali but cotton prices declined significantly in 2003.^[46][47] In addition to cotton, Mali produces rice, millet, corn, vegetables, tobacco, and tree crops. Gold, livestock and agriculture amount to eighty percent of Mali's exports.^[43] HP Pavilion DV9021TX Battery

Eighty percent of Malian workers are employed in agriculture while fifteen percent work in the service sector.^[47] However, seasonal variations lead to regular temporary unemployment of agricultural workers.^[48] Mali's resource in livestock consists of millions of cattle, sheep, and goats. HP Pavilion DV9021XX Battery

 Approximately 40% of Mali's herds were lost during the Sahel drought in 1972–74.

In 1991, with the assistance of the International Development Association, Mali relaxed the enforcement of mining codes which led to renewed foreign interest and investment in the mining industry.^[50
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^] Gold is mined in the southern region and Mali has the third highest gold production in Africa (after South Africa and Ghana).^[46] The emergence of gold as Mali's leading export product since 1999 has helped mitigate some of the negative impact of the cotton and Côte d'Ivoire crises.^[51] HP Pavilion DV9022TX Battery

Other natural resources includekaolin, salt, phosphate, and limestone.^[43]

Electricity and water are maintained by the Energie du Mali, or EDM, and textiles are generated by Industry Textile du Mali, or ITEMA.^[43] Mali has made efficient use of hydroelectricity, consisting of over half of Mali's electrical power. HP Pavilion DV9023 Battery

In 2002, 700 GWhof hydroelectric power were produced in Mali.^[47]

The Malian government participates in foreign involvement, concerning commerce and privatization. Mali underwent economic reform, beginning in 1988 by signing agreements with the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund.^[43] HP Pavilion DV9023US Battery

During 1988 to 1996, Mali's government largely reformed public enterprises. Since the agreement, sixteen enterprises were privatized, twelve partially privatized, and twenty liquidated.^[43] In 2005, the Malian government conceded a railroad company to the Savage Corporation.^[43] HP Pavilion DV9024 Battery

Two major companies, Societé de Telecommunications du Mali (SOTELMA) and the Cotton Ginning Company (CMDT), are expected to be privatized in 2008.^[43]

Mali is a member of the Organization for the Harmonization of Business Law in Africa (OHADA).^[52] HP Pavilion DV9024EA Battery

Demographics

In July 2009, Mali's population was an estimated 14.5 million. The population is predominantly rural (68% in 2002), and 5–10% of Malians are nomadic.^[53] More than 90% of the population lives in the southern part of the country, especially in Bamako, which has over 1 million residents.^[53] HP Pavilion DV9030EA Battery

In 2007, about 48% of Malians were less than fifteen years old, 49% were 15–64 years old, and 3% were 65 and older.^[42] The median age was 15.9 years.^[42] The birth rate in 2012 was 45.2 births per 1,000, and the total fertility rate was 6.4 children per woman.^[42] Thedeath rate in 2007 was 16.5 deaths per 1,000.^[42] HP Pavilion DV9030US Battery

 Life expectancy at birth was 49.5 years total (47.6 for males and 51.5 for females).^[42]Mali has one of the world's highest rates of infant mortality,^[53] with 106 deaths per 1,000 live births in 2007.^[42]

Mali's population encompasses a number of sub-Saharan ethnic groups, most of which have historical, HP Pavilion DV9033 Battery

cultural, linguistic, and religious commonalities.^[53] The Bambara (Bambara: Bamanankaw) are by far the largest single ethnic group, making up 36.5% of the population.^[53]Collectively, the Bambara, Soninké, Khassonké, and Malinké, all part of the broader Mandé group, constitute 50% of Mali's population.^[42] HP Pavilion DV9033CL Battery

Other significant groups are the Fula (French: Peul; Fula: Fulɓe) (17%), Voltaic (12%), Songhai (6%), and Tuareg and Moor (10%).^[42] Mali historically has enjoyed reasonably good inter-ethnic relations; however, some hereditary servitude relationships exist,^[54][55] as do ethnic tensions between the Songhai and the Tuareg.^[53] HP Pavilion DV9035EA Battery

Over the past 40 years, persistent drought has forced many Tuareg to give up their nomadic way of life.^[56]

Mali's official language is French, but numerous (40 or more) African languages also are widely used by the various ethnic groups.^[53] HP Pavilion DV9035NR Battery

About 80% of Mali's population can communicate in Bambara, which is the country's principal lingua franca and marketplace language.

Religion

Islam came to west Africa in the 11th century and remains the predominant religion in most countries in that region. HP Pavilion DV9036 Battery

An estimated 90% of Malians are Muslim (mostly Sunni and Sufi), approximately 5% are Christian (about two-thirds Roman Catholic and one-third Protestant) and the remaining 5% adhere to indigenous or traditional animist beliefs.^[57] Atheismand agnosticism are believed to be rare among Malians, most of whom practice their religion on a daily basis.^[58] HP Pavilion DV9036EA Battery

Islam as practiced in Mali is moderate, tolerant, and adapted to local conditions; relations between Muslims and practitioners of minority religious faiths are generally amicable.^[58] The constitution establishes a secular state and provides forfreedom of religion, and the government largely respects this right.^[58] HP Pavilion DV9037 Battery

Health and education

Mali faces numerous health challenges related to poverty, malnutrition, and inadequate hygiene and sanitation.^[58] Mali's health and development indicators rank among the worst in the world.^[58] HP Pavilion DV9037EA Battery

Life expectancy at birth is estimated to be 53.06 years in 2012.^[59] In 2000, only 62–65 percent of the population was estimated to have access to safe drinking water and only 69 percent to sanitation services of some kind.^[58] In 2001, the general government expenditures on health totaled about US$4 per capita at an average exchange rate.^[60] HP Pavilion DV9038 Battery

Medical facilities in Mali are very limited, and medicines are in short supply.^[60] Malaria and other arthropod-borne diseases are prevalent in Mali, as are a number of infectious diseases such as cholera and tuberculosis.^[60] Mali's population also suffers from a high rate of childmalnutrition and a low rate of immunization.^[60] HP Pavilion DV9038EA Battery

 An estimated 1.9 percent of the adult and children population was afflicted with HIV/AIDS that year, among the lowest rates in Sub-Saharan Africa.

Public education in Mali is in principle provided free of charge and is compulsory for nine years between the ages of seven and sixteen.^[58] HP Pavilion DV9039 Battery

The system encompasses six years of primary education beginning at age seven, followed by six years of secondary education.^[58] However, Mali's actual primary school enrollment rate is low, in large part because families are unable to cover the cost of uniforms, books, supplies, and other fees required to attend.^[58] HP Pavilion DV9039EA Battery

In the 2000–01 school year, the primary school enrollment rate was 61% (71% of males and 51% of females); in the late 1990s, the secondary school enrollment rate was 15% percent (20% of males and 10% of females).^[58] The education system is plagued by a lack of schools in rural areas, as well as shortages of teachers and materials.^[58] HP Pavilion DV9040EA Battery

Estimates of literacy rates in Mali range from 27–30% to 46.4%, with literacy rates significantly lower among women than men.^[58]

According to the World Health Organization in 2001 an estimated 91.6% of Mali's girls and women have had some form of female genital cutting performed on them.^[61]HP Pavilion DV9040EU Battery

Culture

Malian musical traditions are derived from the griots, who are known as "Keepers of Memories".^[62] Malian music is diverse and has several different genres. Some famous Malian influences in music are kora virtouso musician Toumani Diabaté, HP Pavilion DV9040TX Battery

the late roots and blues guitarist Ali Farka Touré, the Tuareg band Tinariwen, and several Afro-pop artists such as Salif Keita, the duo Amadou et Mariam, Oumou Sangare, and Habib Koité. The Dance of Mali includes many different dancing styles. HP Pavilion DV9040US Battery

As well as the music telling a story through sound, the Malian dance shows a story through series' of movements. There are dances for weddings, funerals, marriages, hunting, war, celebration, etc. Malian music and dance also tells about the major events in Mali's history, but as well as the day to day lives of its people. HP Pavilion DV9041 Battery

Though Mali's literature is less famous than its music,^[63] Mali has always been one of Africa's liveliest intellectual centers.^[64] Mali's literary tradition is passed mainly by word of mouth, with jalis reciting or singing histories and stories known by heart.^[64][65] Amadou Hampâté Bâ, HP Pavilion DV9041EA Battery

Mali's best-known historian, spent much of his life writing these oral traditions down for the world to remember.^[65] The best-known novel by a Malian writer is Yambo Ouologuem's Le devoir de violence, which won the 1968 Prix Renaudot but whose legacy was marred by accusations of plagiarism. HP Pavilion DV9042 Battery

Other well-known Malian writers include Baba Traoré, Modibo Sounkalo Keita, Massa Makan Diabaté, Moussa Konaté, and Fily Dabo Sissoko.^[64][65]

The varied everyday culture of Malians reflects the country's ethnic and geographic diversity.^[66] HP Pavilion DV9042EA Battery

Most Malians wear flowing, colorful robes called boubous that are typical of West Africa. Malians frequently participate in traditional festivals, dances, and ceremonies.^[66] Rice and milletare the staples of Malian cuisine, which is heavily based on cereal grains. HP Pavilion DV9043 Battery

Grains are generally prepared with sauces made from leaves such spinach or baobableaves, with tomato, or with peanut sauce, and may be accompanied by pieces of grilled meat (typically chicken, mutton, beef, or goat).^[67][68] Malian cuisine varies regionally.^[67][68] 
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Sports

The most popular sport in Mali is football (soccer),which became more prominent after Mali hosted the 2002 African Cup of Nations. HP Pavilion DV9043EA Battery

 Most towns have regular games;^[71] the most popular teams nationally are Djoliba AC, Stade Malien, and Real Bamako, all based in the capital.^[70] Informal games are often played by youths using a bundle of rags as a ball.^[70]

The country has produced notable players for French teams, including Salif Keita and Jean Tigana. HP Pavilion DV9044EA Battery

Frédéric "Fredi" Kanouté, named 2007 African Footballer of the Year, currently plays for Sevilla FC in Spain's La Liga. Mahamadou Diarra, the captain of the Mali national team, played for Real Madrid for four seasons before moving to AS Monaco FC and Seydou Keita plays for FC Barcelona. HP Pavilion DV9045 Battery

Other notable players currently on European squads include, Mamady Sidibe (Stoke City), Mohammed Sissoko (Juventus), Sammy Traore(Paris Saint-Germain), Adama Coulibaly (AJ Auxerre), Kalifa Cisse, Jimmy Kebe (Reading F.C.), Dramane Traoré (Lokomotiv Moscow),^[69][70] Garra Dembele (Levski Sofia) and others. HP Pavilion DV9045EA Battery

Basketball is another major sport;^[70][72] the Mali women's national basketball team, led by Hamchetou Maiga, competed at the 2008Beijing Olympics.^[73]

Traditional wrestling (la lutte) is also somewhat common, though popularity has declined in recent years.^[71] The game wari, amancala variant, is a common pastime. HP Pavilion DV9046 Battery

A cercle is the second level administrative unit in Mali. Mali is divided into eight régions and one capital district (Bamako); the régions are subdivided into 49 cercles. These subdivisions bear the name of their principal city.

During French colonial rule in Mali, a cercle was the smallest unit of French political administration that was headed by aEuropean officer. HP Pavilion DV9046EA Battery

A cercle consisted of several cantons, each of which in turn consisted of several villages. In 1887 the Cercle of Bafoulabé was the first cercle to be created in Mali. In most of former French West Africa, the term cercle was changed toPrefecture or Department after independence, but this was not done in Mali. HP Pavilion DV9047 Battery

Some cercles (and the district) were, prior to the 1999 local government reorganisation, further divided into Arrondissements, especially in urban areas or the vast northern regions (such as Kidal), which consisted of a collection of Communes. Since these reforms, cercles are now directly subdivided into rural and urban communes, HP Pavilion DV9047EA Battery

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which in turn are divided in Quartiers (Quarters, or Villages and encampments in rural areas) which have elected councils at each level.^[1] There are 703 communes, 36 urban communes(including 6 in Bamako District) and 667 rural communes.^[2] The cercles are listed below. HP Pavilion DV9048EA Battery

A Commune is the third level administrative unit in Mali. Mali is divided into eight regions and one capital district (Bamako). These subdivisions bear the name of their principal city. The regions are divided into 49 Cercles. HP Pavilion DV9049 Battery

The Cercles and the district are divided into 703 Communes, with 36 Urban Communes and 667 Rural Communes,^[1] while some larger Cercles still contain Arrondissementsabove the Commune level, these are organisational areas with no independent power or office. Rural Communes are subdivided in Villages, while Urban Communes are subdivided into Quartier (wards or quarters).HP Pavilion DV9049EA Battery

Communes usually bear the name of their principal town. The capital, Bamako, consists of six Urban Communes. There were initially 701 communes until the Law No. 001-041 of 7 June 2005 created two new Rural Communes in the desert region in the north east of the country: HP Pavilion DV9050 Battery

Alata, Ménaka Cercle in the Gao Regionand Intadjedite, Tin-Essako Cercle in the Kidal Region.^[2]

Not every built up area (which might be described as a town) is a Commune, and not every Commune (especially Rural Communes) contains a large town. HP Pavilion DV9050EA Battery

In most cases where towns and Communes coincide, Commune borders extend beyond built up areas and are, like the Communes of France on which they were based during the colonial period, an administrative structure. Unlike French Communes, they are not the lowest level administrative structure of the nation. HP Pavilion DV9051 Battery

Legally, the Commune structure was created by Law no 96- 059/AN- RM of 4 November 1996. The communes generally retain the same boundaries as the former arrondissements. Commune affairs are directed by a Commune Council (conseil communal) of elected members and a Commune executive (bureau communal) of the elected Mayor and three adjutants. HP Pavilion DV9051EA Battery

The executive is tasked with carrying out the directives voted by the Council. National policies are carried out by a Sub-Prefect (sous préfet), who also carries out certain of the Council's directives over the local arms or national bodies.

Politics of Mali takes place in a framework of a presidential representative democratic republic, HP Pavilion DV9052 Battery

whereby the President of Maliis head of state with a Presidentially appointed Prime Minister as the head of government, and of a multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the National Assembly. The Judiciaryis independent of the executive and the legislature. HP Pavilion DV9052EA Battery

Executive branch

Under Mali's 1992 constitution, the president is chief of state and commander in chief of the armed forces. The president is elected to 5-year terms by direct popular vote. He is limited to two terms. HP Pavilion DV9053 Battery

The president appoints the prime minister as head of government. The president chairs the Council of Ministers (the prime minister and currently 27 other ministers), which adopts a proposals for laws submitted to the National Assembly for approval of them. HP Pavilion DV9053EA Battery

Legislative branch

The National Assembly (Assemblée Nationale) has 160 members, elected for a five year term, 147 members elected in single-seatconstituencies and 13 members elected by Malians abroad. The National Assembly is the sole legislative arm of the government. HP Pavilion DV9054 Battery

Representation is apportioned according to the population of administrative districts. Election is direct and by party list. The term of office is 5 years. The Assembly meets for two regular sessions each year. HP Pavilion DV9054EA Battery

It debates and votes on legislation proposed either by one of its members or by the government and has the right to question government ministers about government actions and policies. Eight political parties, aggregated into four parliamentary groups, are represented in the Assembly. HP Pavilion DV9055 Battery

ADEMA currently holds the majority; minority parties are represented in all committees and in the Assembly directorate.

Judicial branch

Mali's legal system is based on codes inherited at independence from France. HP Pavilion DV9055EA Battery

New laws have been enacted to make the system conform to Malian life, but French colonial laws not abrogated still have the force of law. The constitution provides for the independence of the judiciary. However, the Ministry of Justice appoints judges and supervises both law enforcement and judicial functions. HP Pavilion DV9056 Battery

The Supreme Court has both judicial and administrative powers. Under the constitution, there is a separate constitutional court and a high court of justice with the power to try senior government officials in cases of treason.

Administrative divisions

Administratively, Mali is divided into eight regions HP Pavilion DV9056EA Battery

(Gao, Kayes, Kidal, Koulikoro, Mopti, Segou, Sikasso, Tombouctou) and the capital district of Bamako, each under the authority of an elected governor. Each region consists of five to nine districts (or Cercles), administered by Prefects. Cercles are divided into communes, which, in turn, are divided into villages or quarters. HP Pavilion DV9057 Battery

A decentralisation and democratisation process began in the 1990s with the establishment of 702 elected municipal councils, headed by elected mayors, and previously appointed officials have been replaced with elected officials, which culminates in a National council of local officials. HP Pavilion DV9057EA Battery

Other changes included greater local control over finances, and the reduction of administrative control by the central government.

Following independence in 1960, Mali initially followed a socialist path and was aligned ideologically with the communist bloc. HP Pavilion DV9058 Battery

But Mali's foreign policy orientation became increasingly pragmatic and pro-Western over time. Since the institution of a democratic form of government in 2002, Mali's relations with the West in general and the United States in particular have improved significantly. U.S.-Malian relations are described by the U.S. HP Pavilion DV9058EA Battery

Department of State as "excellent and expanding," especially given Mali's recent record of democratic stability in the volatile area of West Africa and its avowed support of the war on terrorism. Mali is reported to be one of the largest recipients of U.S. aid in Africa.^[1]

Mali is active in regional organizations such as the African Union. HP Pavilion DV9059 Battery

Working to control and resolve regional conflicts, such as in Côte d'Ivoire, Liberia, and Sierra Leone, is one of Mali's major foreign policy goals. Mali feels threatened by the potential for the spillover of conflicts in neighboring states, and relations with those neighbors are often uneasy. HP Pavilion DV9059EA Battery

General insecurity along borders in the north, including cross-border banditry and terrorism, remain troubling issues in regional relations.^[1]

Mali is a member of the United Nations (and many of its specialized agencies), HP Pavilion DV9060EA Battery

the International Monetary Fund (IMF), the World Bank, the International Labour Organization (ILO), the International Telecommunication Union (ITU), the Universal Postal Union(UPU) and the International Criminal Court (ICC). It also belongs to the Organization of African Unity (OAU); Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC); HP Pavilion DV9060US Battery

Non-Aligned Movement (NAM); an associate member of the European Community (EC); and African Development Bank (ADB).

Mali is active in regional organizations. It participates in the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) and the West African Economic Monetary Union (UEMOA) for regional economic integration; HP Pavilion DV9061 Battery

Liptako-Gourma Authority, which seeks to develop the contiguous areas of Mali, Niger, and Burkina Faso; the Niger River Commission; the Permanent Interstate Committee for drought control in the Sahel (CILSS); and the Senegal River Valley Development Organization (OMVS). HP Pavilion DV9061EA Battery

Although Azawad, a region spanning the expansive north of Mali, was proclaimed independent in April 2012 by Tuareg rebels, Mali has not recognised the de facto state.^[2] Britain has closed its embassy; ECOWAS has declared an embargo against Mali, aiming to squeeze out Malinese oil supplies; 
HP Pavilion DV9062 Battery

closed Mali's assets in the ECOWAS regional bank and has prepared a potential intervention force of 3,000 troops. France has declared it will assist in a potential intervention.

Mali's armed forces are the Army, Air Force, Gendarmerie, Republican Guard, National Guard, and National Police (Sûreté Nationale). HP Pavilion DV9062EA Battery

They number some 7,000 and are under the control of the Minister of Armed Forces and Veterans. The IISS Military Balance 2009 lists an Army of 7,350, Air Force of 400, and Navy of 50.^[7] The Gendarmerie and local police forces (under the Ministry of Interior and Security) maintain internal security. HP Pavilion DV9064 Battery

The IISS lists paramilitary total force as 4,800: 1,800 Gendarmerie (8 companies), 2,000 Republican Guard, and 1,000 Police. In the sixties and seventies, Mali's army and air force relied primarily on the Soviet Union for materiel and training. A few Malians receive military training in the United States, France, and Germany.^[8] HP Pavilion DV9064EA Battery

 Military expenditures total about 13% of the national budget.

The Malian armed forces were initially formed by Malian conscript and volunteer veterans of the French Armed Forces. In the months preceding the formation of the Malian armed forces, the French Armed Forces withdrew from their bases in Mali. HP Pavilion DV9065 Battery

Among the last bases to be closed were those at Kati, on 8 June 1961, Tessalit (un base aérienne secondaire), on 8 July 1961, Gao (la base aérienne 163 de Gao), on 2 August 1961, and Air Base 162 at Bamako (la base aérienne 162 de Bamako), on 5 September 1961.^[1] HP Pavilion DV9065EA Battery

"On 1 October 1960, the Malian army was created and solemnly installed through a speech by Chief of Staff Captain Sekou Traore. On 12 October the same year the population of Bamako attending for the first time an army parade under the command of Captain Tiemoko Konate. Organizationally, HP Pavilion DV9066 Battery

says Sega Sissoko, is the only battalion of Ségou and includes units scattered across the territory. A memo from the Chief of Staff ordered a realignment of the battalion. Following on, a command and services detachment in Bamako was created, and the engineer company in Ségou, the first Saharan motorized company of Gao, HP Pavilion DV9066EA Battery

the Saharan Motor Company of Kidal, the Arouane nomad group, nomadic group of Timetrine, the 1st Reconnaissance Company and Nioro 2nd Reconnaissance Company Tessalit. As of January 16, 1961, Mali's army totaled 1232 men."^[1][3]

On November 19, 1968, a group of young Malian officers staged a bloodless coup and set up a 14-member military junta, with Lt. HP Pavilion DV9067 Battery

Moussa Traoré as president. The military leaders attempted to pursue economic reforms, but for several years faced debilitating internal political struggles and the disastrous Sahelian drought. A new constitution, approved in 1974, created a one-party state and was designed to move Mali toward civilian rule. HP Pavilion DV9067EA Battery

However, the military leaders remained in power. Single-party presidential and legislative elections were held in June 1979, and Gen. Moussa Traoré received 99% of the votes. His efforts at consolidating the single-party government were challenged in 1980 by student-led anti-government demonstrations, which were brutally put down, and by three coup attempts. HP Pavilion DV9068 Battery

The Traore government ruled throughout the 1970s and 1980s. On March 26, 1991, after four days of intense anti-government rioting, a group of 17 military officers, led by current President Amadou Toumani Touré, arrested President Traoré and suspended the constitution. HP Pavilion DV9068EA Battery

They formed a civilian-heavy provisional ruling body, and and initiated a process that led to democratic elections.^[9]

The First Tuareg Rebellion began in 1990 when Tuareg separatists attacked government buildings around Gao. HP Pavilion DV9069 Battery

The armed forces' reprisals led to a full-blown rebellion in which the absence of opportunities for Tuareg in the army was a major complaint. The conflict died down after Alpha Konaré formed a new government and made reparations in 1992. Also, Mali created a new self-governing region, HP Pavilion DV9069EA Battery

the Kidal Region, and provided for greater Tuareg integration into Malian society. In 1994, Tuareg, reputed to have been trained and armed by Libya, attacked Gao, which again led to major Malian Army reprisals and to the creation of the Ghanda Koi Songhai militia to combat the Tuareg. Mali effectively fell into civil war. HP Pavilion DV9071 Battery

Current service commanders are Colonel Boubacar Togola (Armée de Terre), Colonel Waly Sissoko (Armée de l’Air), Lieutenant-Colonel Daouda Sogoba (Garde Nationale) et du Colonel Adama Dembélé (Gendarmerie Nationale).^[10]

Since the collapse of the Soviet Union and the end of the Tuareg Rebellion, HP Pavilion DV9071EA Battery

the Army has struggled to maintain its size, despite recent military aid from the United States. It is organised into two tank battalions (T-55, T-54 and T-34/85, tanks, including possibly a light armoured battalion of PT-76's and Type 62 light tanks),^[11] HP Pavilion DV9072 Battery

four infantry battalions, one Special Forces battalion, one airborne battalion (possibly the 33rd Parachute Infantry Regiment, Djikoroni, in Bamako^[12]), two artillery battalions, one engineer battalion (34th), 2 AD artillery batteries, and one SAM battery.^[7] Manpower is provided by two-year selective conscription. HP Pavilion DV9072EA Battery

Mali apparently has six military regions, according to Jane's World Armies. 1st Military Region and 13th Combined Arms Regiment may be in Gao.^[13] 3rd Military Region appears to be at Kati.^[14] The 4th Military Region is at Kayes [1] and the 5th Military Region is at Timbuktu.^[12] HP Pavilion DV9073 Battery

The 512 Regiment was reported within the 5th Military Region in 2004.[2] On 13 April 2010, Agence France Press reported that French Armed Forces training will be given to the '62nd Motorized Infantry Regiment of the 6th Military Region, based in Sévaré (15 km from Mopti). HP Pavilion DV9073EA Battery

It consists of three companies of Rapid Intervention (CIR), considered the elite troops of the Malian army.'

Mali is one of four Saharan states which will create a Joint Military Staff Committee, to be based at Tamanrasset in southern Algeria. HP Pavilion DV9074CL Battery

Algeria, Mauritania, Niger, and Mali will take part.^[15]

The Army controls the small navy (approx. 130 sailors and 3 river patrol boats).

Training establishments

The Malian armed forces have at least two significant training establishments: HP Pavilion DV9074EA Battery

Joint Military School at Koulikoro (fr:École militaire interarmes de Koulikoro)

Alioune Blondin Beye Peacekeeping Training School at Bamako (fr:École de maintien de la paix Alioune Blondin Beye de Bamako)

The Alioune Bloundin Beye school is the tactical-level component of a trio of three ECOWAS peacekeeping training schools: HP Pavilion DV9075EA Battery

the Alioune Bloundin Beye school, the Kofi Annan International Peacekeeping Training Centre in Accra, Ghana (operational level), and the Nigerian National Defence College (strategic level).^[16] HP Pavilion DV9075EU Battery

Mali Air Force

The Mali Air Force (Armée de l'Air du Mali) was founded in 1961 with French supplied military aid this included MH.1521 Broussardutility monoplane followed by two C-47 transports until Soviet aid starting in 1962 with four Antonov AN-2 Colt biplane transports and four Mi-4 light helicopters.^[17] HP Pavilion DV9075LA Battery

In the mid-1960s the Soviets delivered five MIG-17F fighters and a single MIG 15UTI fighter trainer to equip a squadron based at Bamako/Senou initially with Soviet pilots. Two Ilyushin Il-14 transports and a Mil Mi-8helicopter were delivered in 1971 followed by two Antonov AN-24 transports. HP Pavilion DV9075XX Battery

In 1976 an AN-26 transport was acquired along with a second AN-26 in 1983. Also in 1970s the first of 12 MiG-21MF fighter and two MIG 21UM trainers were delivered. In 1983 six Aero L-29 jet trainers were delivered to form a Ecole de Pilotage (pilots school). HP Pavilion DV9076 Battery

The Economy of Mali is based to a large extent on agriculture, with an overwhelmingly rural population, many of whom are engaged in subsistence agriculture. Mali is among the ten poorest nations of the world, is one of the 37 Heavily Indebted Poor Countries, and is a major recipient of foreign aid from many sources, HP Pavilion DV9076EA Battery

including multilateral organizations (most significantly the World Bank, African Development Bank, and Arab Funds), and bilateral programs funded by the European Union, France, United States, Canada, Netherlands, and Germany. Before 1991, the former Soviet Union, China and the Warsaw Pact countries had been a major source of economic and military aid. HP Pavilion DV9077 Battery

The per capita gross domestic product (GDP) of Mali was $820 in 1999. Mali's great potential wealth lies in mining and the production of agricultural commodities, livestock, and fish. The most productive agricultural area lies along the banks of the Niger River, the Inner Niger Delta and the southwestern region around Sikasso. HP Pavilion DV9077EA Battery

Agriculture

Agricultural activities occupy 70% of Mali's labor force and provide 42% of the GDP. Cotton and livestock make up 75%-80% of Mali's annual exports. Small-scale traditional farming dominates the agricultural sector, HP Pavilion DV9078 Battery

with subsistence farming (of cereals, primarily sorghum, pearl millet, and maize) on about 90% of the 14,000 km² (3.4 million acres) under cultivation.

The most productive agricultural area lies along the banks of the Niger River between Bamako and Mopti and extends south to the borders of Guinea, Côte d'Ivoire, and Burkina Faso. HP Pavilion DV9078EA Battery

Average rainfall varies in this region from 0.5 m per year (20 in) around Mopti to 1.4 m (55 in) in the south near Sikasso. This area is most important for the production of cotton, rice, pearl millet, maize, vegetables, tobacco and tree crops.

Annual rainfall, critical for Mali's agriculture, has been at or above average since 1993. HP Pavilion DV9079 Battery

Cereal production, including rice, has grown annually, and the 1997-98 cotton harvest reached a record 500,000 tons.

Until the mid-1960s, Mali was self-sufficient in grains — pearl millet, sorghum, rice and maize. HP Pavilion DV9079EA Battery

Diminished harvests during bad years, a growing population, changing dietary habits, and, most importantly, policy constraints on agricultural production resulted in grain deficits almost every year from 1965 to 1986. Production has rebounded since 1987, however, thanks to agricultural policy reforms undertaken by the government and supported by the Western donor nations. HP Pavilion DV9080 Battery

Liberalization of producer prices and an open cereals market have created incentives to production. These reforms, combined with adequate rainfall, successful integrated rural agriculture programs in the south, and improved management of the Office du Niger, have led to surplus cereal production over the past five years. HP Pavilion DV9080EA Battery

Rice

Rice is grown extensively along the banks of the Niger between Ségou and Mopti, with the most important rice-producing area at the Office du Niger, located north of Ségou toward the Mauritanian border. HP Pavilion DV9081 Battery

Using water diverted from theNiger, the Office du Niger irrigates about 600 km² of land for rice and sugarcane production. About one-third of Mali's paddy rice is produced at the Office du Niger.

Sorghum

Sorghum is planted extensively in the drier parts of the country and along the banks of the Niger in eastern Mali, HP Pavilion DV9081EA Battery

as well as in the lake beds in the Niger delta region. During the wet season, farmers near the town of Dire have cultivated wheat on irrigated fields for hundreds of years. Peanuts are grown throughout the country but are concentrated in the area around Kita, west of Bamako. HP Pavilion DV9082 Battery

Livestock

Mali's resource in livestock consists of millions of cattle, sheep, and goats. Approximately 40% of Mali's herds were lost during the great drought in 1972-74. The level was gradually restored, but the herds were again decimated in the 1983-85 drought. HP Pavilion DV9082EA Battery

The overall size of Mali's herds is not expected to reach pre-drought levels in the north of the country, where encroachment of the desert has forced many nomadic herders to abandon pastoral activities and turn instead to farming. The largest concentrations of cattle are in the areas north of Bamako and Ségou extending into the Niger delta, HP Pavilion DV9083 Battery

but herding activity is gradually shifting southward, due to the effects of previous droughts. Sheep, goats, and camels are raised to the exclusion of cattle in the dry areas north and east of Timbuktu.

Fishing

The Niger River also is an important source of fish, providing food for riverside communities; HP Pavilion DV9083EA Battery

the surplus—smoked, salted, and dried—is exported. Due to droughtand diversion of river water for agriculture, fish production has steadily declined since the early 1980s.

Mining

Mining has long been an important aspect of the Malian economy. Gold, the third largest source of Malian exports, is still mined in the southern region: HP Pavilion DV9084 Battery

at the end of the 20th century Mali had the third highest gold production in Africa (after South Africa and Ghana).^[3] These goldfields, the largest of which lie in the Bambouk Mountains in western Mali (Kenieba Cercle), were a major source of wealth and trade as far back as the Ghana Empire. HP Pavilion DV9084EA Battery

As well, salt mining in the far north, especially in the Saharan oases of Taoudenni and Taghaza have been a crucial part of the Malian economy for at least seven hundred years. Both resources were vital components of the Trans-Saharan trade, stretching back to the time of the Roman Empire. HP Pavilion DV9085 Battery

From the 1960s to the 1990s state owned mining—especially for gold—expanded, followed by a period of expansion by international contract mining.

In 1991, following the lead of the International Development Association, Mali relaxed the enforcement of mining codes which led to greater foreign investment in the mining industry.^[4] HP Pavilion DV9085EA Battery

From 1994 to 2007, national and foreign companies were granted around 150 operating licences along with more than 25 certificates for exploitation and more than 200 research permits. Gold mining in Mali has increased dramatically, with more than 50 tonnes in 2007 from less than half a tonne produced annually at the end of the 1980s. HP Pavilion DV9086 Battery

Mining revenue totaled some 300 billion CFA francs in 2007 more than a thirty times increase from the 1995 total national mining revenue of less than 10 billion CFA. Government revenues from mining contracts, less than 1% of the state income in 1989 were almost 18% in 2007.^[5] HP Pavilion DV9086EA Battery

Gold

Gold accounted for some 80% of mining activity in the mid 2000s, while there remain considerable proven reserves of other minerals not currently exploited. Gold has become Mali's third-largest export, after cotton—historically the basis of Mali's export industry—and livestock. HP Pavilion DV9087 Battery

The emergence of gold as Mali's leading export product since 1999 has helped mitigate some of the negative impacts caused by fluctuations in world cotton markets and loss of trade from the Ivorian Civil War to the south.^[6] HP Pavilion DV9087EA Battery

Large private investments in gold mining include Anglogold-Ashanti ($250 million) in Sadiola and Yatela, and Randgold Resources ($140 million) inMorila - both multinational South African companies located respectively in the north-western and southern parts of the country. HP Pavilion DV9088 Battery

Social and environment impacts

While great income is produced, most staff employed in the mining industries are from outside Mali, and residents in the areas of intensive mining complain of little benefit from the industry. HP Pavilion DV9088EA Battery

Populations complain of displacement for the construction of mines: at Sadiola Gold Mine, 43 villages have lost some land to the mine there, while in Fourou, near the large Syama goldmines, 121 villages saw some displacement.^[7]

In addition, the continued exploitation of unregulated small scale mining, often by child labourers, HP Pavilion DV9089 Battery

supplies a large international gold market in Bamako which feeds into international production.^[8] Recent criticism has surfaced around the working conditions, pay, and the widespread use of child labour in these small gold mines, and the method which middlemen, in regional centers like Sikasso and Kayes, HP Pavilion DV9089EA Battery

purchase and transport gold. Gold collected in the towns is sold on—with almost no regulation or oversight—to larger merchant houses in Bamako or Conakry, and eventually to smelters in Europe.^[9] Ecological factors, especially pollution of water by mine tailings, is a major source of concern. HP Pavilion DV9090 Battery

Other minerals

Other mining operations include kaolin, salt, phosphate, and limestone.^[10] The government is trying to generate interest in the potential of extracting petroleum from the Taoudeni basin.^[11] HP Pavilion DV9090EA Battery

Manufacturing

During the colonial period, private capital investment was virtually nonexistent, and public investment was devoted largely to the Office du Niger irrigation scheme and to administrative expenses. HP Pavilion DV9091 Battery

Following independence, Mali built some light industries with the help of various donors. Manufacturing, consisting principally of processed agricultural products, accounted for about 8% of the GDP in 1990.

Economic Reform

Between 1992 and 1995, Mali implemented an economic adjustment programme that resulted in economic growth and a reduction in financial imbalances. 
HP Pavilion DV9091EA Battery

This was reflected in the increased GDP growth rates (9.6% in 2002) and decreased inflation. GDP in 2002 amounted to US$3.2 billion, made up of agriculture 37.8%, industry 26.4% and services 35.9%.HP Pavilion DV9092 Battery

Effective implementation of macroeconomic stabilization and economic liberalization policies and the stable political situation resulted in good economic performance and enabled Mali to strengthen the foundations for a market-oriented economy and encourage private sector development, HP Pavilion DV9092EA Battery

backed up by significant progress in implementing the country’s privatization programme. Agricultural reform measures were aimed at diversifying and expanding production as well as at reducing costs.

Mali’s economic performance is fragile, characterised by a vulnerability to climatic conditions, fluctuating terms of trade, dependence on ports in neighboring countries.HP Pavilion DV9095EU Battery

Mali produces cotton, cereals and rice. Although locally produced rice now provides competition to imported Asian rice, Mali's primary export is cotton. Livestock exports and industry (producing vegetable and cottonseed oils, and textiles) have experienced growth. HP Pavilion DV9095TX Battery

Although most of Mali is desert or semi-desert, the Niger River is a potential irrigation source. Exports are in three primary sector products (56% gold, 27% cotton, 5% livestock). Cote d’Ivore is where most of the country’s trade goes through and the crisis previously experienced here had a negative effect on Mali’s economy. HP Pavilion DV9095XX Battery

The mining industry in Mali has recently attracted renewed interest and investment from foreign companies. Gold and phosphate are the only minerals mined in Mali although deposits of copper and diamonds do also exist. The emergence of gold as Mali’s leading export product since 1999 has helped mitigate some of the negative impact of the cotton and Côte d'Ivoire crises. HP Pavilion DV9096EA Battery

The development of the oil industry is important due to the country’s dependence on the importation of all petroleum products from neighbouring states. Electricity is provided by the parastatal utility, Electricite du Mali. HP Pavilion DV9096XX Battery

HP Pavilion DV9097EA Battery

Foreign aid

Mali is a major recipient of foreign aid from many sources, including multilateral organizations (most significantly the World Bank, African Development Bank, andArab Funds), and bilateral programs funded by the European Union, France, United States, Canada, Netherlands, and Germany. HP Pavilion DV9097XX Battery

Before 1991, the former Soviet Union had been a major source of economic and military aid, including construction of a cement plant and the Kalana gold mine. Currently, aid from Russia is restricted mainly to training and provision of spare parts. Chinese aid remains high, HP Pavilion DV9098 Battery

and Chinese-Malian joint venture companies have become more numerous in the last 3 years, leading to the opening of a Chinese investment center. The Chinese are major participants in the textile industry and in large scale construction projects, including a bridge across the Niger, HP Pavilion DV9098XX Battery

a conference center, an expressway in Bamako, and a new national stadium scheduled to be completed for the Africa Cup competition in 2002.

In 1998, U.S. assistance reached over $40 million. This included $39 million in sector support through United States Agency for International Development (USAID) programs, HP Pavilion DV9099EA Battery

largely channeled to local communities through private voluntary agencies; Peace Corps program budget of $2.2 million for more than 160 Volunteers serving in Mali; Self Help and the Democracy Funds of $170,500; and $650,000 designated for electoral support. HP Pavilion DV9099XX Battery

Military assistance includes $275,000 for the International Military Education Training (IMET) program, $1.6 million for the African Crisis Response Initiative (ACRI), $60,000 for Joint Combined Exercise Training (JCET), and $100,000 for Humanitarian Assistance. HP Pavilion DV9100 Battery

Mali's High Fertility Rate

Mali faces several problems which are obstructing them from attaining economic growth. One of the most pressing problems is that of its high fertility rate. With an average Total Fertility Rate (TFR) of 6.52 from 2005 to 2010, Mali ranks 8th on the UN TFR ranking; HP Pavilion DV9105EU Battery

this means that an average of more than 6 children are born to a Mali woman in her entire lifetime which inevitably leads to a population figure the country’s resources will not be able to provide for. High fertility rates inevitably lead to a population figure that exerts great stress on the country’s resources. HP Pavilion DV9200 Battery

Mali’s health and development indicators rank among the worst in the world. With rapid population growth fueled by high birth rates, the Mali government faces an uphill task of providing sufficient basic health care for its citizens. The result of this is a country plagued with infectious diseases like cholera and tuberculosis. HP Pavilion DV9200CTO Battery

This is evident as Mali’s health and development indicators rank among the worst in the world.^[13] Inadequate hygiene and sanitation also contribute to the widespread diseases in Mali. In 2002, only an estimated 62–65% of the population had access to safe drinking water and 69% to sanitation services.^[13] HP Pavilion DV9200XX Battery

These are indications that the resources available in the country are not able to keep up with the large population.

High fertility rates put a strain on educational resources.^[14] HP Pavilion DV9201CA Battery

Both the quality and quantity of educational resources available for each child decline as birth rates increase and there might be insufficient resources to cater to the large proportion of youth. The result is a vicious cycle in poverty as a lack of education undermines the population’s ability to be an efficient workforce. HP Pavilion DV9201TX Battery

Continuous child-bearing means that women are often deprived of the opportunity to get proper education hence having unequal opportunities at employment. In Mali, literacy levels are lower for women than for men. The adult female literacy rate is 58% that of males as of 2005-2008.^[15] HP Pavilion DV9202EA Battery

Lack of education for women also means a lack of knowledge on family planning methods and thus the continuously high fertility rates and high maternal mortality rates. Contraceptive prevalence rate is 8% as of 2005-2009.^[15]

With unfavorable living conditions, productivity of the country is highly compromised. HP Pavilion DV9202TX Battery

A fall in birth rates can ease the strain on the country’s resources and improve overall living conditions so as to create a more efficient and productive workforce.

The economy of Africa consists of the trade, industry, agriculture, and human resources. HP Pavilion DV9203TX Battery

As of 2012, approximately1070 million people^[1] were living in 54 different countries. Africa is a resource-rich continent but many African people are poor. Recent growth has been due to growth in sales in commodities, services, and manufacturing.^[2] Africa is by far the world's second poorest inhabited continent, second only to Asia in the number of poor people. HP Pavilion DV9203XX Battery

Though parts of the continent have made significant gains over the last few years. In recent years, African countries consist of the fastest growing economies in the world.

Recent Economic Growth

In the past ten years, growth in Africa has surpassed that of East Asia, including Japan.^[8]Data suggest parts of the continent are now experiencing fast growth. HP Pavilion DV9204TX Battery

The amount of growth that has been occurring is comparable or greater to that of the Asian Tiger, Latin Puma markets, gaining them the new nickname, the Lion Markets.^[9] The World Bank reports the economy of Sub-Saharan African countries grew at rates that match or surpass global rates. HP Pavilion DV9204XX Battery

The economies of the fastest growing African nations experienced growth significantly above the global average rates. The top nations in 2007 include Mauritania with growth at 19.8%, Angola at 17.6%, Sudan at 9.6%, Mozambique at 7.9% and Malawi at 7.8%.^[12] 
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Many international agencies are gaining increasing interest in investing emerging African economies.^[13] especially as Africa continues to maintain high economic growth despite current global economic recession.^[14] The rate of return on investment in Africa is currently the highest in the developing world.^[9] HP Pavilion DV9205EU Battery

Economic Variants and Indicators

While no African nation has joined the ranks of the developed nations in the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) yet, the entire continent is not utterly impoverished and there is considerable variation in its wealth. HP Pavilion DV9205TX Battery

North Africa has long been closely linked to the economies of Europe and the Middle East. South Africa is by far the continent's wealthiest state in total GDP, accounting for 30% of the continent's GDP in nominal terms and 24% by PPP. The small but oil-rich states of Gabon and Equatorial Guinea round out the list of the ten wealthiest states in Africa. HP Pavilion DV9205US Battery

The temperate northern and southern ends of the continent are wealthier than tropical sub-Saharan Africa. Within the tropics, East Africa, with its long pre-colonial history of trade and development, has tended to be wealthier and more stable than elsewhere. HP Pavilion DV9206CA Battery

Islands such as the Seychelles, Réunion, Mauritius, and Cape Verde have remained wealthier than the continental nations, although the unstable Comoros remains poor.The poorest states are those engaged in or just emerging from civil wars. These include the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Sierra Leone, and Burundi. HP Pavilion DV9206EU Battery

In recent times, the poorest region has been the Horn of Africa, although it had historically been one of the wealthiest regions of sub-Saharan Africa. Ethiopia in particular had a long and successful history. HP Pavilion DV9206XX Battery

The poverty of the region, and the associated famines and wars, have been a problem since the 1800s. HP Pavilion DV9206TX Battery

There is considerable internal variation within countries. Urban areas, especially capital cities, are generally wealthier than rural zones. HP Pavilion DV9207TX Battery

Inequality is pronounced in most African countries; the upper class has a much higher income than the majority of the population. HP Pavilion DV9207US Battery,HP Pavilion DV9208NR Battery,HP Pavilion DV9208TX Battery