Monday, July 9, 2012
General Dynamics Corporation
General Dynamics Corporation (NYSE: GD) is a United States aerospace and defense company formed by mergersand divestitures. As of 2011, it is the fourth largest defense contractor in the world.[3] It is headquartered inWest Falls Church, Fairfax County, Virginia. Sony VAIO PCG-3B1M Battery
The company has changed markedly in the post-Cold War era of defense consolidation. It has four main business segments: Marine Systems; Combat Systems; Information Systems and Technology; and Aerospace. Until 1993, when production was sold to Lockheed, Sony VAIO PCG-3C1T Battery
General Dynamics' former Fort Worth Division manufactured the Western world's most-produced jet fighter, the F-16 Fighting Falcon. In 1999, the company re-entered the airframe business with their purchase of Gulfstream Aerospace.
General Dynamics traces its ancestry to John Philip Holland's Holland Torpedo Boat Company. Sony VAIO PCG-3D1M Battery
This company was responsible for developing the U.S. Navy's first submarines built at Lewis Nixon's Crescent Shipyard, located in Elizabethport, New Jersey. The revolutionary submarine boat Holland VI was built there, its keel being laid down in 1896. Crescent's superintendent and naval architect, Arthur Leopold Busch, supervised the construction of this submarine. Sony VAIO PCG-3G2M Battery
After being launched on 17 May 1897, it was eventually purchased by the Navy and renamed USS Holland. The Holland was officially commissioned on 12 October 1900 and became the United States Navy's first submarine, later known as SS-1. The Navy placed an order for more submarines, Sony VAIO PCG-5R1M Battery
which were developed in rapid succession and were assembled at two different locations on both coasts. These submarines were known as the A-Class or Adder Class, and became America's first fleet of underwater craft at the beginning of the 20th century.
Due to the lengthy and expensive process of introducing the world's first practical submarines, Sony VAIO PCG-7141M Battery
Holland, short on funds, had to part with his company and sell his interest to financier Isaac Leopold Rice, renaming the new firm as the Electric Boat Company on 7 February 1899. Holland effectively lost control of the company and found himself earning a salary of $90 a week as chief engineer, while the company he founded was selling submarines for $300,000 each. Sony VAIO PCG-7143M Battery
Holland resigned from the company effective April 1904. Rice became Electric Boat's first President, remaining there from that time until 1915 when he stepped down just prior to his death on 2 November 1915.
Electric Boat gained a reputation for unscrupulous arms dealing in 1904-05, Sony VAIO PCG-7151M Battery
when it sold submarines to Japan's Imperial Japanese Navy and Russia's Imperial Russian Navy, who were then at war. Holland submarines were also sold to the British Royal Navy through the English armaments company Vickers, and to the Dutch to serve in the Royal Netherlands Navy. Sony VAIO PCG-7154M Battery
The new pioneering craft (originally) developed by the company was now legitimized as genuine naval weapons by the world's most powerful navies.
In the post-World War II wind-down, Electric Boat was cash-flush but lacking in work, with its workforce shrinking from 13,000 to 4,000 by 1946.Hoping to diversify, Sony VAIO PCG-7162M Battery
the president and chief executive officer, John Jay Hopkins, started looking for companies that would fit into Electric Boat's market.
Canadair purchase
They quickly found that Canadair, owned by the Canadian government, was suffering from similar post-war malaise and was up for sale. Sony VAIO PCG-7181M Battery
Hopkins bought the company for $10 million in 1946. Even by the Canadian government's calculations, the factory alone was worth more than $22 million, excluding the value of the remaining contracts for planes or spare parts.
When they purchased Canadair, its production line and inventory systems were in disorder. Sony VAIO PCG-41112M Battery
Hopkins hired Canadian-born mass-production specialist H. Oliver Westto take over the president's role and return Canadair to profitability. Shortly after the takeover, Canadair began delivering its new Canadair North Star (a version of the DC-4), and was able to deliver aircraft to Trans-Canada Airlines, Sony VAIO PCG-7153M Battery
Canadian Pacific Airlines and British Overseas Airways Corporation (BOAC) well in advance of their contracted delivery times.
As defense spending increased with the onset of the Cold War, Canadair would go on to win many Canadian military contracts for the Royal Canadian Air Force, Sony VAIO PCG-71312M Battery
and became a major aerospace company. These included Canadair T-33 trainer, the Canadair Argus long-range maritime reconnaissance and transport aircraft, and theCanadair F-86 Sabre. Between 1950 and 1958, 1,815 Sabres were built. Canadair also produced 200 CF-104 Starfighter supersonic fighter aircraft, a licensed-built version of the Lockheed F-104. Sony VAIO PCG-7144M Battery
In 1976 Canadair was sold back to the Canadian Government, which sold it to Bombardier Inc. in 1986.
General Dynamics emerges
As the aircraft production at Canadair became increasingly important to the company, Hopkins argued that the name "Electric Boat" was no longer appropriate. On 24 April 1952 the name was officially changed to General Dynamics.[7] Sony VAIO PCG-7191L Battery
General Dynamics was still cash-flush after the Canadair purchase, and, given the success of that company, they continued to look for new aviation purchases. In March 1953 they purchased Convair from the Atlas Group.[7] The sale was approved by government oversight with the proviso that General Dynamics would continue to operate Sony VAIO PCG-3C1M Battery
out of Air Force Plant 4 in Fort Worth, Texas. This factory was set up in order to spread out strategic aircraft production and rented to Convair during the war to produce B-24 Liberator bombers. Over time, the Fort Worth plant would become Convair's major production center. Sony VAIO PCG-3F1M Battery
As was the case with Canadair, Convair worked as an independent division within the General Dynamics umbrella. Over the next decade the company introduced theF-106 Delta Dart Interceptor (the earlier F-102 Delta Dagger being designed before the takeover), the B-58 Hustler and the Convair 880 and 990 airliners. Sony VAIO PCG-3H1M Battery
Convair also introduced the first U.S. operational intercontinental ballistic missile, the Atlas.
Management churn
Hopkins fell seriously ill during 1957, and was eventually replaced by Frank Pace later that year.[7] Meanwhile, John Naish succeeded Joseph McNarney as president of Convair. Sony VAIO PCG-3J1M Battery
Henry Crown became the company's largest shareholder, and merged his Material Service Corporation with GD in 1959.
Naish left in May 1961, taking most of Convair's top people with him. GD subsequently reorganized into Eastern Group in New York and Western Group in San Diego,California, Sony VAIO PCG-8141M Battery
with the latter taking over all of the aerospace activities and dropping the Convair brand name from its aircraft in the process.
Frank Pace retired under pressure in 1962 and Roger Lewis, former Assistant Secretary of the Air Force and Pan American Airways CEO was brought in as the new CEO. Sony VAIO PCG-8161M Battery
The company recovered then fell back into the same struggles. In 1971, the board brought in Dave Lewis (no relation) as Chairman and CEO. At the time he was President of McDonnell Douglas. Dave Lewis served until his retirement in 1985.
Aviation powerhouse
During the early 1960s the company bid on the United States Air Force's TFX (Tactical Fighter, Sony VAIO PCG-3C2M Battery
eXperimental) project for a new low-level "penetrator". Robert McNamara, newly installed as the Secretary of Defense, forced a merger of the TFX with U.S. Navy plans for a new long-range "fleet defender" aircraft. In order to bid on a naval version successfully, GD partnered with Grumman, who would build a customized version for aircraft carrier duties. Sony VAIO PCG-5N2M Battery
After four rounds of bids and changes, the GD/Grumman team finally won the contract over a Boeing submission.
The F-111 first flew in December 1964. The F-111B flew in May 1965, but the Navy said that it was too heavy for use on aircraft carriers. Sony VAIO PCG-5P1M Battery
With an unacceptable Navy version, estimates for 2,400 F-111s, including exports, were sharply reduced, but GD still managed to make a $300-million profit on the project. Grumman went on to build the F-14 Tomcat, an aircraft that used many of the innovations of the F-111, but designed solely as a carrier-borne fighter. Sony VAIO PCG-5S1M Battery
Reorganization
In May 1965, GD reorganized into 12 operating divisions based on product lines. The board decided to build all future planes in Fort Worth, ending plane production at San Diego (Convair's original plant), but continuing with space and missile development there. Sony VAIO PCG-9Z1M Battery
In October 1970, Roger Lewis left and David S. Lewis from McDonnell Douglas was named CEO. Lewis required that the company headquarters move to St. Louis, Missouri, which occurred in February 1971.
F-16 success
In 1972, GD bid on the USAF's Lightweight Fighter (LWF) project. GD and Northrop were awarded prototype contracts. Sony VAIO PCG-7171M Battery
GD, whose F-111 program was winding down, desperately needed a new aircraft contract. They organized their own "Skunk Works" group, the Advanced Concepts Laboratory, and responded with a new aircraft design that incorporated more modern equipment than the Northrop contender, mainly fly-by-wire flight controls. Sony VAIO PCG-7186M Battery
GD's YF-16 first flew in January 1974, and proved to have slightly better performance than the YF-17 in head-to-head testing. It entered production as the F-16 in January 1975 with an initial order of 650 and a total order of 1,388. The F-16 also won contracts worldwide, beating the F-17 in foreign competition as well. Sony VAIO PCG-81112M Battery
F-16 orders eventually totaled more than 4,000, making it the largest and most successful program for GD, and one of the most successful western military projects since World War II.
Land Systems focus
In 1976, General Dynamics sold the struggling Canadair back to the Canadian government for $38 million. Sony VAIO PCG-31311M Battery
By 1984, General Dynamics had four divisions: Convair in San Diego, General Dynamics-Fort Worth, General Dynamics-Pomona, and General Dynamics-Electronics. In 1985 a further reorganization created the Space Systems Division from the Convair Space division. In 1985, GD also acquired Cessna. Sony VAIO PCG-8152M Battery
Henry Crown, still GD's largest shareholder, died on 15 August 1990. Following this, the company started to rapidly divest its under-performing divisions under CEO William Anders. Cessna was re-sold to Textron in January 1992, the San Diego missile production to General Motors-Hughes Aerospace in May 1992, Sony VGP-BPL13 Battery
the Fort Worth aircraft production to Lockheed in March 1993 (a nearby electronics production facility was separately sold to Israeli-based Elbit Systems, marking their entry into the United States market), and its Space Systems Division to Martin Marietta in 1994. The remaining Convair Aircraft Structure unit was sold to McDonnell Douglas in 1994. Sony VGP-BPS13 Battery
The remains of the Convair Division were simply closed in 1996. GD's exit from the aviation world was short-lived, and in 1999 the company acquired Gulfstream Aerospace.
Having divested itself of its aviation holdings, GD concentrated on land and sea products. GD purchased Chrysler's defense divisions in 1982, renaming them General Dynamics Land Systems. Sony VGP-BPS13/B Battery
In 2003 they purchased the defense divisions of General Motors as well. It is now a major supplier of armored vehicles of all types, including the M1 Abrams, LAV 25, Stryker, and a wide variety of vehicles based on these chassis.
General Dynamics Land Systems was hurt by the cancellation of the US Army's Future Combat Systems program and the loss in the MRAP-All Terrain Vehicle competition. Sony VGP-BPS13/S Battery
Government lawsuit and settlement
On August 19, 2008, GD agreed to pay $4 million to settle a lawsuit brought by the US Government claiming a GD unit fraudulently billed the government for defectively manufactured parts used in US military aircraft and submarines. Sony VGP-BPS13/S Battery
The US alleged that from September 2001 to August 2003 GD defectively manufactured or failed to test parts used in US military aircraft, such as the C-141 Starlifter transport plane. The GD unit involved, based in Glen Cove, New York, closed in 2004.
The M1 Abrams is a third-generation main battle tank produced in the United States. Sony VGP-BPS13A/B Battery
It is named after GeneralCreighton Abrams, former Army Chief of Staff and Commander of US military forces in Vietnam from 1968 to 1972. Highly mobile, designed for modern armored ground warfare,[9] the M1 is well armed and heavily armored. Notable features include the use of a powerful gas turbine engine (fueled with JP8 jet fuel), Sony VGP-BPS13A/S Battery
the adoption of sophisticated composite armor, and separate ammunition storage in a blow-out compartment for crew safety. Weighing nearly 68 short tons (almost 62 metric tons), it is one of the heaviest main battle tanks in service.
The M1 Abrams entered U.S. service in 1980, replacing the M60 tank. Sony VGP-BPS13AS Battery
It served for over a decade alongside the improved M60A3, which had entered service in 1978. The M1 remains the principal main battle tank of the United States Army and Marine Corps, and the armies of Egypt, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Australia, and Iraq.
Three main versions of the M1 Abrams have been deployed, Sony VGP-BPS13B/B Battery
the M1, M1A1, and M1A2, incorporating improved armament, protection and electronics. These improvements, as well as periodic upgrades to older tanks, have allowed this long-serving vehicle to remain in front-line service. The M1A3 is currently under development.
The M1 Abrams was developed during the Cold War as a successor to the canceled MBT-70. Sony VGP-BPS13B/Q Battery
The M1 Abrams contract went to Chrysler Defense and was the first vehicle to adopt Chobham armor. Adaptations before the Gulf War(Operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm) gave the vehicle better firepower and NBC protection. Being vastly superior to Iraqi tanks, very few M1 tanks were hit by enemy fire. Sony VGP-BPS13B/S Battery
Upgrades after the war improved the tank's weapons sights and fire control unit. The invasion of Iraq in 2003 destroyed Iraq's military. The subsequent insurgency exposed the tanks' vulnerability to rocket-propelled grenades and mines. These problems were partially rectified with the TUSK kit. The Marine Corps sent a company of M1 Abrams to Afghanistan in late 2010. Sony VGP-BPS13Q Battery
Development
The first attempt to replace the aging M60 tank was the MBT-70, developed in partnership with West Germany in the 1960s. The MBT-70 had advanced features such as a height-adjustable pneumatic suspension and a turret design that allowed the driver to always face the direction of travel, Sony VGP-BPS13S Battery
but ultimately proved to be too heavy, complex, and expensive. As a result of the imminent failure of this project, the U.S. Army introduced the XM803. This succeeded only in producing an expensive system with capabilities similar to the M60.
Congress canceled the MBT-70 in November and XM803 December 1971, Sony VGP-BPL21 Battery
and redistributed the funds to the new XM815, later renamed the XM1 Abrams after General Creighton Abrams. Prototypes were delivered in 1976 by Chrysler Defense and General Motors armed with the license-built version of the 105 mmRoyal Ordnance L7 gun along with a Leopard 2 for comparison. Sony VGP-BPS21 Battery
The turbine-powered Chrysler Defense design was selected for development as the M1; Chrysler had significant experience designing turbine-powered land vehicles going back to the 1950s. In March 1982, General Dynamics Land Systems Division (GDLS) purchased Chrysler Defense, after Chrysler built over 1,000 M1s. Sony VGP-BPS21/S Battery
3,273 M1 Abrams were produced 1979-85 and first entered US Army service in 1980. Production at the government-owned, GDLS-operated Lima Army Tank Plantin Lima, Ohio, was joined by vehicles built at the Detroit Arsenal Tank Plant in Warren, Michigan from 1982 to 1996.[1] The M1 was armed with the license-built version of the 105 mm Royal Ordnance L7 gun. Sony VGP-BPS21A Battery
An improved model called the M1IP was produced briefly in 1984 and contained small upgrades. The M1IP models were used in theCanadian Army Trophy NATO tank gunnery competition in 1985 and 1987.
About 6,000 M1A1 Abrams were produced from 1986–92 and featured the M256120 mm (4.7 in) smoothbore cannon developed by Rheinmetall AG of Germany for the Leopard 2, Sony VGP-BPS21A/B Battery
improved armor, and a CBRN protection system. Production of M1 and M1A1 tanks totaled some 9,000 tanks at a cost of approximately $4.30 million per unit.[2] By 1999 costs for the tank were upwards of US$5 million a vehicle.[3] Sony VGP-BPS21B Battery
In 1990, Project on Government Oversight in a report criticized the M1's high costs and low fuel efficiency in comparison with other tanks of similar power and effectiveness such as the Leopard 2. The report was based on data from U.S. Army sources and the Congressional record.[13] Sony VAIO VPCS12V9E/B Battery
As the Abrams entered service in the 1980s, they operated alongside M60A3within the United States military, and with other NATO tanks in numerous Cold War exercises. These exercises usually took place in Western Europe, especially West Germany, but also in some other countries, including South Korea. Sony VAIO VPCY115FGS Battery
The exercises were aimed at countering Soviet forces. However, by January 1991 the Cold War was virtually over and the Abrams was instead employed in the Middle East.
Gulf War, 1991
The Abrams remained untested in combat until the Gulf War in 1991 during Operation Desert Storm. Sony VAIO VPCY115FX/BI Battery
A total of 1,848 M1A1s were deployed to Saudi Arabia to participate in the liberation of Kuwait. The M1A1 was superior to Iraq'sSoviet-era T-55 and T-62 tanks, as well as T-72s imported from the Soviet Union and Poland.[14] The existence of licence-produced T-72 (nicknamed Asad Babil) Sony VAIO VPCY115FXBI Battery
has been disputed, according to Polish officials none were finished prior to the Iraqi Taji tank plant being destroyed in 1991.[14] The T-72s, like most Soviet export designs, lacked night vision systems and then-modern rangefinders, though they did have some night fighting tanks with older active infrared systems or floodlights. Sony VAIO VPCY118EC Battery
A total of 23 M1A1s were damaged or destroyed during the war. Of the nine Abrams destroyed, seven were destroyed by friendly fire, and two were purposely destroyed to prevent capture after being damaged.[15] Some others took minor combat damage, with little effect on their operational readiness. Sony VAIO VPCY118GX/BI Battery
Very few M1 tanks were hit by enemy fire, and there was only one fatality, along with a handful of woundings as a result.
The M1A1 was capable of making kills at ranges in excess of 2,500 metres (8,200 ft). This range was crucial in combat against previous generation tanks of Soviet design in Desert Storm, Sony VAIO VPCY119FJ/S Battery
as the effective range of the main gun in the Soviet/Iraqi tanks was less than 2,000 metres (6,600 ft). This meant Abrams tanks could hit Iraqi tanks before the enemy got in range—a decisive advantage in this kind of combat. In friendly fire incidents, the front armor and fore side turret armor survived direct APFSDS hits from other M1A1s. Sony VAIO VPCY11AFJ Battery
This was not the case for the side armor of the hull and the rear armor of the turret, as both areas were penetrated at least in two occasions by friendly depleted uranium ammunition during the Battle of Norfolk.[17]
During Operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm some Sony VAIO VPCY11AGJ Battery
M1IP and M1A1s were modified locally in theater by a modified work order with additional rolled homogenous armor plating being welded directly on the the turret front. The M1 can be equipped with mine plow and mine roller attachments if needed.
Upgrades
The M1A2 was a further improvement of the M1A1 with a commander's independent thermal viewer, Sony VAIO VPCY11AHJ Battery
weapon station, position navigation equipment, and a full set of controls and displays linked by a digital data bus. These upgrades also provided the M1A2 with an improved fire control system.[18] The M1A2 System Enhancement Package (SEP) added digital maps, FBCB2capabilities, Sony VAIO VPCY11AVJ Battery
and an improved cooling system to compensate for heat generated by the additional computer systems. The M1A2 SEP also serves as the basis for theM104 Wolverine heavy assault bridge.
Further upgrades included depleted uranium armor for all variants, Sony VAIO VPCY11M1E/S Battery
a system overhaul that returns all A1s to like-new condition (M1A1 AIM), a digital enhancement package for the A1 (M1A1D), and a commonality program to standardize parts between the U.S. Army and the Marine Corps (M1A1HC). Sony VAIO VPCY11S1E Battery
Iraq War
Further combat was seen during 2003 when US forces invaded Iraq and deposed the Iraqi leader Saddam Hussein in Iraq Warduring Operation Iraqi Freedom. As of March 2005, approximately 80 Abrams tanks were forced out of action by enemy attacks.[19] Sony VAIO VPCY11V9E/S Battery
The most lopsided achievement of the M1A1s was the destruction of seven T-72s in a point-blank skirmish (less than 50 yards (46 m)) near Mahmoudiyah, about 18 miles (29 km) south of Baghdad, with no losses for the American side.[20] In addition to the Abrams' already heavy armament, Sony VAIO VPCY218EC/BI Battery
some crews were also issued M136 AT4 shoulder-fired anti-tank weapons under the assumption that they might have to engage heavy armor in tight urban areas where the main gun could not be brought to bear.
Following lessons learned in Desert Storm, the Abrams and many other US combat vehicles used Sony VAIO VPCY218EC/G Battery
in the conflict were fitted with Combat Identification Panels to reduce friendly fire incidents. These were fitted on the sides and rear of the turret, with flat panels equipped with a four-cornered 'box' image on either side of the turret front (as seen in the images at right). Sony VAIO VPCY218EC/L Battery
Some Abrams were also fitted with a secondary storage bin on the back of the existing bustle rack on the rear of the turret referred to as a bustle rack extension to enable the crew to carry more supplies and personal belongings.
Several Abrams that were irrecoverable due to loss of mobility or other circumstances were destroyed by friendly forces to prevent their capture, usually by other Abrams.[21] Sony VAIO VPCY218EC/P Battery
Some Abrams were disabled by Iraqi infantrymen in ambushes during the invasion. Some troops employed short-range anti-tank rockets and fired at the tracks, rear and top. Other tanks were put out of action when struck in critical places by heavy machine gun rounds.[22][23] A majority of Abrams damaged post-invasion were by improvised explosive devices (IEDs).[24] Sony VAIO VPCY21S1E/L Battery
Due to the vulnerability of tanks in urban combat, the Tank Urban Survival Kit, or TUSK, is being issued to some M1 Abrams. It adds protection in the rear and side of the tank to improve fighting ability in urban environments.[25]
In May 2008, it was reported that an American M1 tank had also been damaged by an RPG-29, Sony VAIO VPCY21S1E/P Battery
which uses a tandem-charge high explosive anti-tank warhead to penetrate explosive reactive armor (ERA) as well as composite armor behind it, in Iraq.[26][27]The US considers the RPG-29 threat to American armor high and has refused to allow the newly formed Iraqi army to buy it, fearing it will fall into the insurgent hands.[28] Sony VAIO VPCY21S1E/SI Battery
Afghanistan
Operating tanks in Afghanistan can be difficult due to the rough terrain, although Canada and Denmark have deployed Leopard 1 and 2 battle tanks that have been specifically modified to operate in the relatively flat and arid conditions of south-western Afghanistan. Sony VAIO VPCF11AHJ Battery
In late 2010 at the request of Regional Command Southwest, the US Marine Corps deployed a small detachment of 14 M1A1 Abrams from Delta Company, 1st Tank Battalion, 1st Marine Division (Forward),[29] to southern Afghanistan in support of operations in Helmand and Kandahar provinces.[30] Sony VAIO VPCF11JFX/B Battery
Future
The tracked M8 Armored Gun System was conceived as a possible supplement for the Abrams in U.S. service for low-intensity conflict in the early 1990s. Prototypes were made but the program was canceled. Sony VAIO VPCF11M1E Battery
The 8-wheeled M1128 Mobile Gun System was designed to supplement the Abrams in U.S. service for low-intensity conflict.[31] It has been introduced into service.
The U.S. Army's Future Combat Systems' XM1202 Mounted Combat System was to replace the Abrams in U.S. service and was in development when funding for the program was cut from the DoD's budget. Sony VAIO VPCF11M1E/H Battery
The M1A3 Abrams is in the early design period with the U.S. Army.[11][32] The Army aims to build prototypes by 2014 and to begin to field the first combat-ready M1A3s by 2018 or 2019.
The M1A2 SEP TUSK Abrams and a modernized M1 Abrams were included in the Ground Combat Vehicle (GCV) Analysis of Alternatives (AOA). Sony VAIO VPCF11MFX/B Battery
Vehicles included in the AOA were determined to be inferior to the planned GCV.[33] The U.S. Army Vice Chief of Staff Gen. Peter Chiarelli commended the M1 Abrams program and recommended a similar approach for the GCV program.[34] The Ground Combat Vehicle family of vehicles is the planned successor to the M1 as well as many other U.S. Army vehicles. Sony VAIO VPCF11S1E Battery
However, the Army anticipates that the M1A1 will remain in U.S. service until at least 2021, and the M1A2 to beyond 2050.[35]
Plant shutdown
The Army is planning to close the Lima Army Tank Plant from 2013 to 2016 in an effort to save over $1 billion; it would be reopened in 2017 to upgrade existing tanks. Sony VAIO VPCF11S1E/B Battery
General Dynamics Land Systems (GDLS), which operates the factory, opposed the closure, arguing that suspension of operations would increase long-term costs and reduce flexibility.[36][37] Specifically, GDLS estimates that closing the plant would cost $380 million and restarting production would cost $1.3 billion.[38] Sony VAIO VPCF11Z1E Battery
If passed, a bill in the U.S. Senate from the first session of the 112th Congress would allocate $272 million in funds toward the plant to allow it to continue regular operations through 2013.
Camouflage
Unlike earlier US military vehicles from World War II through Vietnam, Sony VAIO VPCF11Z1E/BI Battery
which used a scheme of dark brownish green known as "olive drab" with large white stars, prototypes and early production M1 (105 mm gun) & M1-IP models used the flat medium green paint; and the large white insignia stars have transitioned to much smaller black markings. Sony VAIO VPCF11ZHJ Battery
Some units painted their M1s with the older MERDC 4-color paint scheme but the turn-in requirements for these tanks required repainting them to solid green. Therefore, even though a large number of the base model M1s were camouflaged in the field, few or none exist today. Sony VAIO VPCF127HGBI Battery
M1A1s came from the factory with the NATO three color camouflage Black/Med-Green/Dark-Brown CARC paint jobs.Today M1A1s are given the NATO three color paint job during rebuilds. M1s and M1A1s deployed to Desert Storm were hastily painted desert tan. Sony VAIO VPCF137HG/BI Battery
Some, but not all, of these tanks were re-painted to their "authorized" paint scheme. M1A2s built for Middle Eastern countries were painted in desert tan. Some M1 series tanks are being painted desert tan for service in Iraq and some are not. Replacement parts (roadwheels, armor skirt panels, drive sprockets, etc.) Sony VAIO VPCS111FM/S Battery
are painted overall green, which can sometimes lead to vehicles with a patchwork of green and desert tan parts.
Australian M1A1s were desert tan when delivered but have undergone a transition to the Australian Army vehicle standard 'Disruptive Pattern Camouflage'; a scheme that consist of black, olive drab and brown.[40][41] Sony VAIO VPCS115EC Battery
Concealment
The turret is fitted with two six-barreled smoke grenade launchers (USMC M1A1s use an eight-barreled version). These can create a thick smoke that blocks both vision and thermal imaging. Sony VAIO VPCS115FG Battery
The engine is also equipped with a smoke generator that is triggered by the driver. When activated, fuel is sprayed into the hot turbine exhaust, creating the thick smoke. However, due to change from diesel as a primary fuel to the use of JP-8, this system is disabled on most Abrams today because of a slightly elevated risk of fire damage to the engine compartment. Sony VAIO VPCS117GG Battery
Active protection system
In addition to the armor, some Abrams are equipped with a Softkill Active protection system, the AN/VLQ-6 Missile Countermeasure Device (MCD) that can impede the function of guidance systems of some semi-active control line-of-sight (SACLOS) Sony VAIO VPCS117GGB Battery
wire and radio guided anti-tank missiles (such as the Russian AT-3, AT-4, AT-5, AT-6 and the like) and thermally and infrared guided missiles.[42] The MCD works by emitting a massive, condensed infrared signal to confuse the seeker of an anti-tank guided missile (ATGM). Sony VAIO VPCS118EC Battery
However, the drawback to the system is that the ATGM is not destroyed, it is merely directed away from its intended target, leaving the missile to detonate elsewhere. This device is mounted on the turret roof in front of the loader's hatch, and can lead some people to mistake Abrams fitted with these devices for the M1A2 version, Sony VAIO VPCS119FJ/B Battery
since the Commander's Independent Thermal Viewer on the latter is mounted in the same place, though the MCD is box-shaped and fixed in place as opposed to cylindrical and rotating like the CITV.
Armor
The Abrams is protected by armor based on the British-designed Chobham armor, a further development of the British 'Burlington' armor. Sony VAIO VPCS119GC Battery
Chobham is a composite armor formed by spacing multiple layers of various alloys of steel, ceramics, plastic composites, and kevlar, giving an estimated maximum (frontal turret) 1,320–1,620 millimetres (52–64 in) of RHAeversus HEAT (and other chemical energy rounds) and 940–960 mm (37–38 in) versus kinetic energy penetrators.[43] Sony VAIO VPCS11AFJ Battery
It may also be fitted with reactive armor over the track skirts if needed (as in the Urban Survival Kit) and slat armor over the rear of the tank and rear fuel cells to protect against ATGMs. Protection against spalling is provided by a Kevlar liner. Beginning in 1987, M1A1 tanks received improved armor packages that incorporated depleted uranium (DU) Sony VAIO VPCS11AGJ Battery
mesh in their armor at the front of the turret and the front of the hull. Armor reinforced in this manner offers significantly increased resistance towards all types of anti-tank weaponry, but at the expense of adding considerable weight to the tank, as depleted uranium is 1.7 times more dense than lead.[44] Sony VAIO VPCS11AHJ Battery
The first M1A1 tanks to receive this upgrade were tanks stationed in Germany, since they were the first line of defense against the Soviet Union. US-based tank battalions participating in Operation Desert Storm received an emergency program to upgrade their tanks with depleted uranium armor immediately before the onset of the campaign. Sony VAIO VPCS11AVJ Battery
M1A2 tanks uniformly incorporate depleted uranium armor, and all M1A1 tanks in active service have been upgraded to this standard as well. The added protection from the depleted uranium armor is believed to be equivalent to 24 inches (610 mm) of RHA. In the Gulf War, Sony VAIO VPCS11J7E/B Battery
Abrams tanks survived multiple hits at relatively close ranges from Iraqi Lion of Babylon tanks and ATGMs. M829A1 "Silver Bullet" APFSDS rounds from other M1A1 Abrams were unable to penetrate the front and side armor (even at close ranges) in friendly fire incidents as well as an incident in which an Abrams tried to destroy an abandoned Abrams stuck in the mud.[45] Sony VAIO VPCS11M1E/W Battery
Damage control
If the Abrams does suffer damage resulting in a fire in the crew compartment, the tank is equipped with a halon fire-suppression system that automatically engages and extinguishes fires in seconds. Sony VAIO VPCS11V9E Battery
Fuel and ammunition are in armored compartments with blowout panels to protect the crew from the risk of the tank's own ammunition cooking off if the tank is damaged. It once saved a crew in Iraq war, according to Jane's Weekly 20 June 2003.Sony VAIO VPCS11V9E/B Battery
Primary
The main armament of the original model M1 was the M68A1 105 mm rifled tank gun firing a variety of high explosive anti-tank, high explosive, white phosphorusand an anti-personnel (multiple flechette) round. Sony VAIO VPCS11X9E/B Battery
This gun is a license-built version of the British Royal Ordnance L7 gun. However, it proved to be inadequate; a cannon with lethality beyond the 3-kilometer (1.9 mi) range was needed to combat newer armor technologies. To attain that lethality, projectile diameter needed to be increased. Sony VAIO VPCS123FGB Battery
M256 smoothbore gun
The main armament of the M1A1 and M1A2 is the M256A1 120 mm smoothbore gun, designed by Rheinmetall AG of Germany, manufactured under license in the United States by Watervliet Arsenal, New York. Sony VAIO VPCS125EC Battery
The M256A1 is a variant of the Rheinmetall 120 mm L/44 gun carried on the German Leopard 2 on all variants up to the Leopard 2A5. Leopard 2A6 replaced the L/44 barrel with a longer L/55.
The M256A1 fires a variety of rounds. The M829A2 APFSDS round was developed specifically to address the improved protection of a Russian T-72, Sony VAIO VPCS128EC Battery
T-80U or T-90 main battle tank equipped with Kontakt-5 Explosive Reactive Armor.[46] Later, the M829A3APFSDS round was introduced to improve its effectiveness against next generation ERA equipped tanks. As a counter to that, the Russian army introduced Relikt, the most modern Russian ERA, which is claimed to be twice as effective as Kontakt-5.[47] Sony VAIO VPCS129GC Battery
Development of the M829 series is continuing with the M829E4 currently in development.[48] The Abrams also fires HEAT shaped charge rounds such as the M830, the latest version of which (M830A1) incorporates a sophisticated multi-mode electronic sensing fuse and more fragmentation which allows it to be used effectively against armored vehicles, Sony VAIO VPCS12C7E/B Battery
personnel, and low-flying aircraft. The Abrams uses a manual loader. The fourth tank crew member on the Abrams also provides additional support for maintenance, observation post/listening post (LP/OP) operations, and other tasks.
The new M1028 120 mm anti-personnel canister cartridge was brought into service early for use in the aftermath of the 2003 invasion of Iraq. Sony VAIO VPCS12L9E/B Battery
It contains 1,098 3⁄8-inch (9.5 mm) tungsten balls which spread from the muzzle to produce a shotgun effect lethal out to 600 meters (2,000 ft). The tungsten balls can be used to clear enemy dismounts, break up hasty ambush sites in urban areas, clear defiles, stop infantry attacks and counter-attacks and support friendly infantry assaults by providing covering fire. Sony VAIO VPCCW1S1E/R Battery
The canister round is also a highly effective breaching round and can level cinder block walls and knock man-sized holes in reinforced concrete walls for infantry raids at distances up to 75 meters (246 ft).[49]
In addition to this, the XM1111 (Mid-Range-Munition Chemical Energy) is also in development. Sony VAIO VPCCW1S1E/W Battery
The XM1111 is a guided munition using a dual-mode seeker that combines imaging-infrared and semi-active laser guidance. The MRM-CE was selected over the competing MRM-KE which used a rocket-assisted kinetic energy penetrator. The CE variant was chosen due to its better effects against secondary targets, providing a more versatile weapon. Sony VAIO VPCCW21FX/B Battery
The Army hopes to achieve IOC with the XM1111 by 2013.[50]
Secondary
The Abrams tank has three machine guns:
A .50 cal. (12.7 mm) M2HB machine gun in front of the commander's hatch. On the M1, M1IP and M1A1, this gun is on a powered mount and can be fired using a 3× magnification sight, Sony VAIO VPCCW21FX/L Battery
known as the Commander's Weapon Station (CWS for short), while the vehicle is "buttoned up" with all its hatches closed to protect the crew. On the M1A2 and M1A2 SEP, this gun is on a flex mount, the commander having to expose himself to fire the weapon manually. With the TUSK add-on kit, Sony VAIO VPCCW21FX/R Battery
an M2HB or a Mk 19 grenade launcher can be mounted on a CROWS remote weapons platform (similar to the Protector M151 remote weapon station used on the Stryker family of vehicles). However current variants of the TUSK kit on the M1A2 have forgone this, instead adding transparent gun shields to the commander's weapon station. Sony VAIO VPCCW21FX/W Battery
The upgrade variant called M1A1 Abrams Integrated Management (AIM) equips the .50 caliber gun with a thermal sight for accurate night and other low-visibility shooting.[51]
A 7.62 mm M240 machine gun in front of the loader's hatch on a skate mount (seen at right). Some of these have been fitted with gun shields during the Iraq War, as well as night-vision scopes for low-visibility engagements. Sony VAIO VPCCW26EC Battery
A second 7.62 mm M240 machine gun in a coaxial mount to the right of the main gun. The coaxial MG is aimed and fired with the same computer fire control system used for the main gun.[52]
(Optional) A second coaxial 12.7 mm M2HB machine gun can be mounted directly above the main gun in a remote weapons platform as part of the TUSK upgrade kit. Sony VAIO VPCCW26FX/B Battery
Aiming
The Abrams is equipped with a ballistic fire-control computer that uses user and system-supplied data from a variety of sources, to compute, display, and incorporate the three components of a ballistic solution—lead angle, ammunition type, and range to the target—to accurately fire the tank. Sony VAIO VPCCW28EC Battery
These three components are determined using a YAG rod laser rangefinder, crosswind sensor, a pendulumstatic cant sensor, data concerning performance and flight characteristics of each specific type of round, tank-specific boresight alignment data, ammunition temperature, air temperature, Sony VAIO VPCCW28FJ/P Battery
barometric pressure, a muzzle reference system (MRS) that determines and compensates for barrel droop at the muzzle due to gravitational pull and barrel heating due to firing or sunlight, and target speed determined by tracking rate tachometers in the Gunner's or Commander's Controls Handles. Sony VAIO VPCCW28FJ/R Battery
All of these factors are computed into a ballistic solution and updated 30 times per second. The updated solution is displayed in the Gunner's or Tank Commander's field of view in the form of a reticle in both day and Thermal modes. The ballistic computer manipulates the turret and a complex arrangement of mirrors so that all one has to do is keep the reticle on the target and fire to achieve a hit. Sony VAIO VPCCW28FJ/W Battery
Proper lead and gun tube elevation are applied to the turret by the computer, greatly simplifying the job of the gunner.
The fire-control system uses these data to compute a firing solution for the gunner. The ballistic solution generated ensures a hit percentage greater than 95 percent at nominal ranges. Sony VAIO VPCCW29FJ/W Battery
Either the commander or gunner can fire the main gun. Additionally, the Commander's Independent Thermal Viewer (CITV) on the M1A2 can be used to locate targets and pass them on for the gunner to engage while the commander scans for new targets. In the event of a malfunction or damage to the primary sight system, Sony VAIO VPCCW2AFJ Battery
the main and coaxial weapons can be manually aimed using a telescopic scope boresighted to the main gun known as the Gunner's Auxiliary Sight (GAS). The GAS has two interchangeable reticles; one for HEAT and MPAT (MultiPurpose AntiTank) rounds and one for APFSDS and STAFF (Smart Target-Activated Fire and Forget) ammunition. Sony VAIO VPCCW2AHJ Battery
Turret traverse and main gun elevation can be accomplished with manual handles and cranks in the event of a Fire Control System or Hydraulic System failure. The commander's M2 .50 caliber machine gun on the M1 and M1A1 is aimed by a 3× magnification sight incorporated into the Commander's Weapon Station (CWS), Sony VAIO VPCCW2S1E Battery
while the M1A2 uses either the machine gun's own iron sights, or a remote aiming system such as the CROWS system when used as part of the TUSK (Tank Urban Survival Kit). The loader's M240 machine gun is aimed either with the built-in iron sights or with a thermal scope mounted on the machine gun. Sony VAIO VPCCW2S1E/B Battery
The M1 Abrams is powered by a 1,500 shaft horsepower (1,100 kW) Honeywell AGT 1500(originally made by Lycoming) multi-fuel gas turbine, and a six speed (four forward, two reverse) Allison X-1100-3B Hydro-Kinetic automatic transmission, giving it a governed top speed of 45 mph (72 km/h) on paved roads, and 30 mph (48 km/h) cross-country. Sony VAIO VPCCW2S1E/L Battery
With the engine governor removed, speeds of around 60 mph (97 km/h) are possible on an improved surface; however, damage to the drive train (especially to the tracks) and an increased risk of injuries to the crew can occur at speeds above 45 mph (72 km/h). The tank was built around this engine[53] and it is multifuel capable; Sony VAIO VPCCW2S1E/P Battery
meaning that it can be powered with diesel, kerosene, any grade of motor gasoline, and jet fuel (such as JP-4 or JP-8). For logistical reasons, JP-8 is the US military's universal fuel powering both aircraft and vehicle fleets. On the other hand, Australian M1A1 AIM SA are diesel powered since the use of JP-8 is less common in the Australian Army. Sony VAIO VPCCW2S1E/R Battery
Since the Iraq War, the US Army began looking at replacing the AGT-1500 turbine engine in the M1 series because of its fuel usage. The turbine engine provides better acceleration, but takes twice as much fuel as a comparable reciprocating (piston)diesel engine. Turbine engines are lighter than piston diesels, Sony VAIO VPCCW2S1E/W Battery
but take up the extra space and weight in a larger fuel tank to produce the same range. This became a problem in the Persian Gulf War as the speed of a tank division was limited to the speed of its refueling trucks.
The gas turbine propulsion system has proven quite reliable in practice and combat, Sony VAIO VPCCW2S5C CN1 Battery
but its high fuel consumption is a serious logistic issue (starting up the turbine alone consumes nearly 10 US gallons (38 L) of fuel).[54] The engine burns more than 1.67 US gallons (6.3 L) per mile(60 US gallons (230 L) per hour) when traveling cross-country and 10 US gallons (38 L) per hour when idle.[ Sony VAIO VPCF112FX/B Battery
The high speed, high temperature jet blast emitted from the rear of M1 Abrams tanks makes it difficult for the infantry to proceed shadowing the tank in urban combat.[56] The turbine is very quiet when compared to diesel engines of similar power output and produces a significantly different sound from a contemporary diesel tank engine, Sony VAIO VPCF115FG/B Battery
reducing the audible distance of the sound, thus earning the Abrams the nickname "whispering death" during its first REFORGER exercise.
Honeywell was developing another gas turbine engine with General Electric for the XM2001 Crusader program that was also to be a replacement for the AGT-1500 engine already in the Abrams tank. Sony VAIO VPCF116FGBI Battery
The new LV100-5 engine is lighter and smaller (43% fewer parts) with rapid acceleration, quieter running and no visible exhaust.[58] It also features a 33% reduction in fuel consumption (50% less when idle) and near drop-in replacement.[59] The Abrams-Crusader Common Engine Program was shelved when the Crusader program was canceled, Sony VAIO VPCF117FJ/W Battery
however Phase 2 of Army's PROSE (Partnership for Reduced O&S Costs, Engine) program calls for further development of the LV100-5 and replacement of the current AGT-1500 engine.[60]
Using a high power density 330 cc (20 cu in) Wankel rotary engine modified to use diesel and military grade jet fuel, Sony VAIO VPCF117HG/BI Battery
TARDECdeveloped a 220-pound (100 kg) Auxiliary Power Unit designed to fit into the M1 Abrams, replacing an existing battery pack that weighs about 500 pounds (230 kg). The new APU will also be more fuel efficient than the tank's main engine.[61] Testing of the first APUs began in 2009. Sony VAIO VPCF118FJ/W Battery
Although the M1 tank is not designed to carry riders easily, provisions exist for the Abrams to transport troops in tank desant with the turret stabilization device off. A battle equipped infantry squad may ride on the rear of the tank, behind the turret. The soldiers can use ropes and equipment straps to provide handholds and snap links to secure themselves. Sony VAIO VPCF119FC Battery
If and when enemy contact is made, the tank conceals itself allowing the infantry to dismount.[62]
Strategic
Strategic mobility is the ability of the tanks of an armed force to arrive in a timely, cost effective, and synchronized fashion. The Abrams can be carried by a C-5 Galaxy or a C-17 Globemaster III. The limited capacity (two combat-ready in a C-5, one combat-ready tank in a C-17) Sony VAIO VPCF119FC/BI Battery
caused serious logistical problems when deploying the tanks for the first Persian Gulf War, though there was enough time for 1,848 tanks to be transported by ship.
Marines transport their MAGTF-attached Abrams by combat ship. A Wasp-class LHD typically carries a company of 4 to 5 tanks attached to the deployed Marine Expeditionary Unit, Sony VAIO VPCF119FJ/BI Battery
which are then amphibiously transported to shore by LCAC at 1 combat-ready tank per landing craft.
The Abrams is also transportable by truck, namely the M1070 Heavy Equipment Transporter (HET). Sony VAIO VPCF11AFJ Battery
The HET can operate on highways, secondary roads, and cross-country. The HET accommodates the 4 tank crewmen.[63]
The first instance of the Abrams being airlifted directly into a battlefield occurred in April 2003, Sony VAIO VPCF11AGJ Battery
when armored elements of the 1st Infantry Division were lifted by C-17s into northern Iraq from Ramstein, Germany to support Task Force Viking
XM1: Experimental model. Nine test-beds were produced in 1978.
M1: First production variant. Production began (at Chrysler) in 1979 and continued to 1985 (at General Dynamics) (3,273 built for the US). Sony VAIO VGN-SR73JB/S Battery
M1IP (Improved Performance): Produced briefly in 1984 before the M1A1, contained upgrades and reconfigurations like new turret with thicker frontal armor, new turret is referred as "long" turret instead of older "short" turret, armor upgraded from ~650mm line of sight thickness to ~880mm (894 build for US). Sony VAIO VGN-SR74FB/S Battery
M1A1: Production started in 1985 and continued to 1992, pressurized NBC system, rear bustle rack for improved stowage of supplies and crew belongings, redesigned blow-off panels and M256 120 mm smoothbore cannon (4,976 built for the US Army, 221 for USMC, 755 for Egypt, 59 M1A1 AIM SA sold to Australia). Sony VAIO VGN-SR90FS Battery
M1A1HA (Heavy Armor): Added 1st generation depleted uranium armor mesh, some tanks were later upgraded with 2nd generation depleted uranium armor mesh, and are unofficially designated M1A1HA+.
M1A1HC (Heavy Common): Added new 2nd generation depleted uranium armor mesh, Sony VAIO VGN-SR90NS Battery
digital engine control and other small upgrades common between Army and Marine Corps tanks.
M1A1D (Digital): A digital upgrade for the M1A1HC, to keep up with M1A2SEP, manufactured in quantity for only 2 battalions.
M1A1AIM v.1 (Abrams Integrated Management): A program whereby older units are reconditioned to zero hour conditions;[65] Sony VAIO VGN-SR90S Battery
and the tank is improved by adding Forward-Looking Infra-Red (FLIR) and Far Target Locate sensors, a tank-infantry phone, communications gear, including FBCB2 and Blue Force Tracking, to aid in crew situational awareness, and athermal sight for the .50 caliber machine gun. General Dynamics has been awarded contracts by the US Army to supply this variant.[51] Sony VAIO VGN-SR90US Battery
M1A1AIM v.2/M1A1SA (Situational Awareness): Upgrades similar to AIM v.1 tanks + new 3rd generation depleted uranium armor mesh.
M1A1FEP (Firepower Enhancement Package): Similar upgrade to AIM v.2 for USMC tanks.
M1A1KVT (Krasnovian Variant Tank): Sony VAIO VGN-SR91NS Battery
M1A1s that have been visually modified to resemble Soviet-made tanks for use at theNational Training Center, fitted with MILES gear and a Hoffman device.
M1A1M: An export variant ordered by the Iraqi Army.[66]
M1A1SA "Special Armor": configuration for the Royal Moroccan Army.[67] Sony VAIO VGN-SR91PS Battery
M1A2 (Baseline): Production began in 1992 (77 built for the US and more than 600 M1s upgraded to M1A2, 315 for Saudi Arabia, 218 for Kuwait). The M1A2 offers the tank commander an independent thermal sight and ability to, in rapid sequence, shoot at two targets without the need to acquire each one sequentially, also 2nd generation depleted uranium armor mesh.[68] Sony VAIO VGN-SR91S Battery
M1A2SEP (System Enhancement Package): Has upgraded 3rd generation depleted uranium armor mesh with graphite coating (240 new built, 300 M1A2s upgraded to M1A2SEP for the USA, also unknown numbers of upgraded basic M1's and M1IP's, also 400 oldest M1A1's upgraded to M1A2SEP). Sony VAIO VGN-SR91US Battery
M1A3: Under development, with prospective prototypes by 2014, operational by 2017.[69]
M1 TTB (Tank Test Bed): Prototype with unmanned turret, 3 crew members in armored capsule in front of the heavy armored hull, main armament was 120mm smoothbore gun, M256 derivative or modification, mechanical loading system under turret, never fielded. Sony VAIO VGN-SR92NS Battery
CATTB - Experimental model with a 140 mm smoothbore gun, heavy armored turret and upgraded hull based on the M1's chassis. It had a mechanical loading system in turret bustle, a new engine and probably other upgrades, never fielded. The tank went trials in 1987-1988. CATTB stands for Component Advanced Technology Test Bed.[70] Sony VAIO VGN-SR92PS Battery
M1 Grizzly Combat Mobility Vehicle (CMV)[71][72]
M1 Panther II Remote Controlled Mine Clearing Vehicle[73]
M104 Wolverine Heavy Assault Bridge[74]
M1 Panther II Mine Clearing Blade/Roller System.
M1ABV Assault Breacher Vehicle: Assault variant for the USMC. Based upon the M1A1 Abrams chassis, Sony VAIO VGN-SR92S Battery
the Assault Breacher Vehicle has a variety of systems installed, such as a full-width mine plow, two linear demolition charges, and a lane-marking system. Reactive armor has been fitted to the vehicle providing additional protection against HEAT-based weapons. The turret has been replaced by a new smaller one with two MICLIC launchers at its rear. Sony VAIO VGN-SR92US Battery
A M2HB .50 machine gun in a remote weapons station is mounted on the commander's cupola and a bank of grenade launchers are fitted to each side of the superstructure to cover the frontal arc are provided for self-protection.[75][76]
M1 Armored Recovery Vehicle. Only a prototype produced. Sony VAIO VGN-SR93DS Battery
Tank Urban Survival Kit
The Tank Urban Survival Kit (TUSK), is a series of improvements to the M1 Abrams intended to improve fighting ability in urban environments.[77] Historically, urban and other close battlefields have been the worst place for tanks to fight—a tank's front armor is much stronger than that on the sides, top, or rear, and in an urban environment, Sony VAIO VGN-SR93JS Battery
attacks can come from any direction, and attackers can get close enough to reliably hit weak points in the tank's armor, or get sufficient elevation to hit the top armor.
Armor upgrades include reactive armor on the sides of the tank and slat armor (similar to that on the Stryker) on the rear to protect against rocket-propelled grenades and other shaped charge warheads. Sony VAIO VGN-SR93PS Battery
A Transparent Armor Gun Shield and a thermal sight system are added to the loader's top-mounted M240B 7.62 mm machine gun, and a Kongsberg Gruppen Remote Weapon Turret carrying a .50 caliber machine gun (again similar to that used on the Stryker) is in place of the tank commander's original .50 caliber machine gun mount, Sony VAIO VGN-SR93YS Battery
wherein the commander had to expose himself to fire the weapon manually. An exterior telephone allows supporting infantry to communicate with the tank commander.
The TUSK system is a field-installable kit that allows tanks to be upgraded without needing to be recalled to a maintenance depot. Sony VAIO VGN-SR94FS Battery
While the reactive armor may not be needed in most situations in maneuver warfare, items like the rear slat armor, loader's gun shield, infantry phone (which saw use on Marine Corps M1A1s as early as 2003), and Kongsberg Remote Weapons Station for the .50 caliber machine gun will be added to the entire M1A2 fleet over time. Sony VAIO VGN-SR94GS Battery
On August 29, 2006, General Dynamics Land Systems received a US Army order for 505 Tank Urban Survivability Kits (TUSK) for Abrams main battle tanks supporting operations in Iraq, under a US$45 million contract. The add-on kit will be provided for M1A1 and M1A2-series tanks to enhance crew survivability in urban environments. Sony VAIO VGN-SR94HS Battery
The kit ordered by the Army consists of a Loader's Armor Gun Shield (LAGS), a Tank Infantry Phone (TIP), Abrams Reactive Armor Tiles (ARAT), a Remote Thermal Sight (RTS) and a Power Distribution Box (PDB). Deliveries are expected to be complete by April 2009.[78] Sony VAIO VGN-SR94VS Battery
Under a separate order, the US Army awarded General Dynamics Armament and Technical Products (GDATP) US$30 million to produce reactive armor kits to equip M1A2. The total contract value could reach $59 million if all contract options are exercised. The reactive tiles for the M1 will be locally produced at GDATP's Burlington Technology Center. Sony VAIO VPC CW2MFX/PU Battery
Tiles will be produced at the company's reactive armor facility in Stone County Operations, McHenry, Miss. On December 8, 2006 the U.S. Army added Counter Improvised Explosive Device enhancements to the M1A1 and M1A2 TUSK, awarding GDLS U.S. $11.3 million, part of the $59 million package mentioned above. Sony VAIO VPC S11V9E/B Battery
In December GDLS also received an order amounting about 40% of a US$48 million order for loader's thermal weapon sights being part of the TUSK system improvements for the M1A1 and M1A2 Abrams Tanks.
The IAV Stryker is a family of eight-wheeled,[6] 4-wheel-drive (8x4), Sony VAIO VPCB119GJ/B Battery
armored fighting vehicles derived from theCanadian LAV III and produced by General Dynamics Land Systems, in use by the United States Army. The vehicle is named for two American servicemen who posthumously received the Medal of Honor: Private First Class Stuart S. Stryker, who died in World War II and Specialist Four Robert F. Stryker, who died in the Vietnam War. Sony VAIO VPCB11AGJ Battery
In October 1999, General Eric Shinseki, then U.S. Army Chief of Staff, outlined a transformation plan for the army that would allow it to adapt to post-Cold War conditions. The plan, dubbed "Objective Force", would have the army adopt a flexible doctrine that would allow it to deploy quickly, and equipped for a variety of operations.[8] Sony VAIO VPCB11AVJ Battery
An early phase of the plan called for the introduction of an 'Interim Armored Vehicle' which was intended to fill the capability gap between heavy and lethal, but not easily deployable vehicles (such as the M2 Bradley), and easily deployed, but lightly armed and protected vehicles (such as the Humvee).[9] Sony VAIO VPCB11V9E Battery
A variant of the Canadian LAV III offered by the General Dynamics-General Motors Defence Canada team was ultimately awarded the contract in November 2000.
Production
The Stryker MGS moved into low-rate initial production in 2005 for evaluation.[10] Sony VAIO VPCB11X9E Battery
General Dynamics Land Systems-Canada assembles the Stryker for the U.S. Army in a plant in London, Ontario.[2][1]
The vehicle is employed in Stryker Brigade Combat Teams, light and mobile units based on the Brigade Combat Team Doctrine that relies on vehicles connected by military C4I networks. Sony VAIO VPCCW18FJ/P Battery
The Stryker has come under intense scrutiny from military experts since its introduction in the US Army; this has also been the subject of reporting in the mass media.
General Dynamics's Robotic Systems division was developing autonomous navigation for the Stryker and several other vehicles with a $237 Sony VAIO VPCCW18FJ/R Battery
million contract until the program was cut in July 2011.[11] TARDEC has also tested an active Magneto Rheological suspension, developed by MillenWorks for the Stryker, at the Yuma Proving Ground, which resulted in greater vehicle stability.[12]
Upgrades
The US Army plans to improve its fleet of Stryker vehicles with the introduction of improved semi-active suspension, Sony VAIO VPCCW18FJ/W Battery
modifications reshaping the hull into a shallow V-shaped structure, to protect against improvised explosive devices. Also included are additional armor for the sides, redesigned hatches to minimize gaps in the armor, blast absorbing mine resistant seating, non-flammable tires, Sony VAIO VPCCW19FJ/W Battery
an upgrade to the remote weapon station that allows it to fire on the go, increased 500 amp power generation, a new solid state power distribution system and data bus, and the automotive and power plant systems improvements to support a 25% Gross Vehicle Weight increase. Sony VAIO VPCCW1AFJ Battery
The upgraded V-hull will be part of the new StrykShieldsituational awareness kit, which will address many of these upgrades. Allegheny Technologies' ATI 500-MIL armor steel was designated the primary armored plating for the StrykShield package in 2008.[13]
The upgrade incorporating lessons learned from Afghanistan is designated Sony VAIO VPCCW1AHJ Battery
LAV-H and General Dynamics had a technology demonstrator displayed at the 2007 Association of the United States Army (AUSA) Exposition.[14] In March 2010, it was reported that General Dynamics and Army were working to incorporate a double V-hull into the Stryker design. In July 2010 the Army awarded a $30 million contract to GDLS to start production of the new hull.[19] Sony VAIO VPCCW1S1E Battery
On 9 March 2011, the Department of Defense's director of operational test and evaluations testified that the new V-hull design was "not suitable" for long missions in Afghanistan's terrain. The issues are due to the tight driver's compartment and difficulty releasing the seat to extract an incapacitated driver. Sony VAIO VPCCW1S1E/B Battery
General Dynamics stated these issues would be corrected before the new Stryker version deploys.[20] The upgrade also adds significant weight to the vehicle, which can cause it to sink into soft ground.[21]
In July 2011, 450 Double V-Hull (DVH) variants of the Stryker vehicle was ordered; Sony VAIO VPCCW1S1E/L Battery
the total was increased to 742 a few months later and then to 760 in 2012. DVH Strykers include a new hull configuration, increased armor, upgraded suspension and braking systems, wider tires, blast –attenuating seats, and a height management system.[22][23][24]
Future
The U.S. Army is seeking replacement of the M113 APC and derivatives by Stryker, Sony VAIO VPCCW1S1E/P Battery
MRAP, and Bradley Fighting Vehicle vehicles starting in 2017. In the long term the army is tentatively pursuing replacement with the 50+ ton Ground Combat Vehicle family of vehicles concept.
The Stryker is based on the LAV III light-armored vehicle, which in turn was based on the Swiss MOWAG Piranha III 8x8. Sony VAIO VGN-SR240N/B Battery
The vehicle comes in several variants with a common engine, transmission, hydraulics, wheels, tires, differentials and transfer case. The M1130 Command Vehicle and M1133 Medical Evacuation Vehicle have an air conditioning unit mounted on the back. The medical vehicle also has a higher-capacity generator. Sony VAIO VGN-SR290JTH Battery
A recent upgrade program provided a field retrofit kit to add air conditioning units to all variants, and production started in 2005 on the Mobile Gun System mounting an overhead GDLS 105 mm automatic gun.
Engine and mechanical features
For its powerpack the Stryker uses a Caterpillar diesel engine common in U.S. Sony VAIO VGN-SR290JTJ Battery
Army medium-lift trucks, eliminating additional training for maintenance crews and allowing the use of common parts.[27] Because of obsolescence concerns, the Caterpillar 3126 engine was recently replaced by a Caterpillar C7 engine and the Allison 3200SP transmission.[28]
Pneumatic or hydraulic systems drive almost all of the vehicle's mechanical features; for example, a pneumatic system switches between 8X4 and 8X8 drive. Sony VAIO VGN-SR290JTQ Battery
Designers strove to ease the maintainer's job, equipping most cables, hoses, and mechanical systems with quick-disconnecting mechanisms. The engine and transmission can be removed and reinstalled in approximately two hours, allowing repairs to the turbocharger and many other components to be done outside the vehicle. Sony VAIO VGN-SR290JVB/C Battery
Command, control, and targeting
Extensive computer support helps soldiers fight the enemy while reducing friendly fire incidents. Each vehicle can track friendly vehicles in the field as well as detected enemies. The driver and the vehicle commander (who also serves as the gunner) have periscopes that allow them to see outside the vehicle without exposing themselves to outside dangers. Sony VAIO VGN-SR290JVH/C Battery
The vehicle commander also has access to a day-night thermal imaging camera which allows the vehicle commander to see what the driver sees. The vehicle commander has almost a 360-degree field of vision; the driver, a little more than 90 degrees.
Soldiers can practice training with the vehicles from computer training modules inside the vehicle. Sony VAIO VGN-SR290NTB Battery
General Dynamics Land Systems is developing a new Power and Data Management Architecture to handle computer upgrades.[29]
Protection
The Stryker's hull is constructed from high-hardness steel which offers a basic level of protection against 14.5 mm rounds on the frontal arc, Sony VAIO VGN-SR29VN/S Battery
and all-around protection against 7.62 mm ball ammunition.[30] In addition to this, Strykers are also equipped with bolt-on ceramic armor which offers all-around protection against 14.5 mm, armor-piercing ammunition, and artillery fragments from 152 mm rounds.Sony VAIO VGN-SR29XN/S Battery
Problems were encountered with the initial batch of ceramic armor when it was found that a number of panels failed in tests against 14.5 mm ammunition. Army officials determined that this was due to changes in the composition and size of the panels introduced by their manufacturer, IBD Deisenroth. Sony VAIO VGN-SR2RVN/S Battery
A stopgap solution of adding an additional 3 mm of steel armor was introduced until a permanent solution could be found.[32] The issue was eventually resolved later in 2003 when DEW Engineering was selected as the new, exclusive supplier for the ceramic armor
In addition to the integral ceramic armor, optional packages have been developed. Sony VAIO VGN-SR390NAB Battery
These include slat armor[35] and Stryker reactive armor tiles (SRAT) for protection against rocket propelled grenades and other projectiles, the hull protection kit (HPK), armored skirts for additional protection against improvised explosive devices, and a ballistic shield to protect the commander's hatch.[30] Sony VAIO VGN-SR390NAH Battery
The Stryker also incorporates an automatic fire-extinguishing system with sensors in the engine and troop compartments that activate one or more halon fire bottles, which can also be activated by the driver, externally mounted fuel tanks, and a CBRN(Chemical, Biological, Radiological, Nuclear) Warfare system which will keep the crew compartment airtight and positively pressurized. Sony VAIO VGN-SR41M/P Battery
There are plans to add the Boomerang anti-sniper system.
Reports from military personnel and analysts state that the Stryker is superior to other light military vehicles regarding survivability against IEDs (improvised explosive devices).
Armament
With the exception of some specialized variants, Sony VAIO VGN-SR41M/S Battery
the primary armament of the Stryker is a Protector M151 Remote Weapon Station with .50-cal M2 machine gun, 7.62 mm M240 machine gun, or Mk-19 automatic grenade launcher. The choice of armament was driven by many factors. The US Army wanted a vehicle that could rapidly transport and protect infantry to and around battlefields. Sony VAIO VGN-SR49VN/H Battery
One of the key objectives outlined as part of the army transformation plan was the ability to deploy a brigade anywhere in the world within 96 hours, a division in 120 hours, and five divisions within 30 days. Operational mobility requirements dictated that the vehicle be transportable by C-130 aircraft.[8] Sony VAIO VGN-SR51B/P Battery
While ultimately the Stryker's ability to be transported by C-130 has been demonstrated, there has been criticism about the Stryker's suitability for C-130 transport as the aircraft’s range may not meet its 1,000 mile goal. This is affected by many variables such as the particular C-130 variant and conditions at the departure airport.[38] Sony VAIO VGN-SR51B/S Battery
The Stryker is too heavy (19–26 tons, depending on variant and add-on features) to be lifted by existing helicopters.
In August 2004, the US Air Force successfully air dropped an up-weighted Stryker Engineering Support Vehicle from a C-17.[39] Sony VAIO VGN-SR51MF Battery
This test was to determine the feasibility of air dropping a Stryker MGS. Even though this test was a success, none of the Stryker variants have been certified for airdrop.
Tactical
The Stryker can alter the pressure in all eight tires to suit terrain conditions: highway, cross-country, mud/sand/snow, and emergency. Sony VAIO VGN-SR51MF/P Battery
The system warns the driver if the vehicle exceeds the recommended speed for its tire pressure, then automatically inflates the tires to the next higher pressure setting. The system can also warn the driver of a flat tire, although the Stryker is equipped with run-flat tire inserts that also serve as bead-locks, Sony VAIO VGN-SR51MF/S Battery
allowing the vehicle to move several miles before the tire completely deteriorates.
Some criticism of the Stryker continues a decades-long ongoing debate concerning whether tracked or wheeled vehicles are more effective.[40] Conventional tracks have superior off-road mobility, can pivot a vehicle in place, and are more resistant to battle damage. Sony VAIO VGN-SR51MF/W Battery
Wheeled vehicles are easier to maintain, and have higher road speeds. The US Army chose the Stryker over tracked vehicles due to these advantages.[41]
An additional issue is that rollover is a greater risk with the Stryker relative to other transport vehicles, due to their higher center of gravity. Sony VAIO VGN-SR51MR Battery
The high ground clearance, however, is likely to reduce the damage caused by land mines and improvised explosive devices on the vehicle.[42]
While not amphibious, the Stryker's watertight combat hatch seals allow it to ford water up to the tops of its wheels. Sony VAIO VGN-SR59VG Battery
Cost
The unit cost to purchase the initial Stryker ICVs (without add-ons, including the slat armor) was US$3 million in April 2002.[43] By May 2003, the regular production cost per vehicle was US$1.42 million.[44]
Mission
The Stryker family of vehicles fill a role in the United States Army that is neither heavy nor light, Sony VAIO VGN-SR59VG/H Battery
but rather an attempt to create a force that can move infantry to the battlefield quickly and in relative security. Brigades that have been converted to Strykers have primarily been light, or, in the case of the 2nd Cavalry Regiment, unarmored Humvee-based cavalry scouts. For these units, Sony VAIO VGN-SR70B/S Battery
the addition of Strykers has increased combat power by providing armor protection, a vehicle-borne weapon system to support each dismounted squad, and the speed and range to conduct missions far from the operating base.
Stryker units seem to be especially effective in urban areas, where vehicles can establish initial security positions near a building and dismount squads on a doorstep.[45] Sony VAIO VGN-SR72B/P Battery
The Stryker relies on its speed and communications for the majority of its defense against heavy weapon systems. It is not capable of engaging heavily armored units, relying on communication and other units to control threats outside of its classification. One variant is armed with anti-tank missiles. Sony VAIO VGN-SR72B/S Battery
However, at the National Training Center (Fort Irwin California) 3rd Brigade 2nd ID proved that, through the use of unconventional tactics and small dismounted teams armed with anti-armor weaponry, a Stryker unit could hold its own against a conventional armored unit, should the need arise. Sony VAIO VGN-SR165E/P Battery
This situation is something that commanders would most likely avoid due to a higher casualty rate.
Brigades equipped with the Stryker are intended to be strategically mobile (i.e., capable of being rapidly deployed over long distances). Sony VAIO VGN-SR165E/S Battery
As such, the Stryker was intentionally designed with a lower level of protection compared to tracked vehicles like the M2 Bradley, but with much lower logistic requirements. Sony VAIO VGN-SR190EBJ Battery,Sony VAIO VGN-SR190EBQ Battery,Sony VAIO VGN-SR190EEJ/C Battery
Subscribe to:
Post Comments (Atom)
No comments:
Post a Comment