United States Senate

http://www.all-keyboard.com/,http://www.keyboards-shop.com/,http://www.laptop-fan-shop.com/ The United States Senate is the upper house of the bicameral legislature of the United States, and together with theUnited States House of Representatives makes up the United States Congress. The composition and powers of the Senate are established in Article One of the U.S. Constitution.^[1] Sony  VGP-BPS13 Battery Each U.S. state is represented by two senators, regardless of population, who serve staggered six-year terms. The chamber of the United States Senate is located in the north wing of the Capitol, in Washington, D.C., the national capital. The House of Representatives convenes in the south wing of the same building. Sony  VAIO VGP-BPS13A/B Battery The Senate has several exclusive powers not granted to the House, including consenting to treaties as a precondition to their ratification and consenting to or confirming appointments of Cabinet secretaries, federal judges, other federal executive officials, military officers, regulatory officials, ambassadors, Sony  VAIO VGP-BPS13B/B Battery and other federal uniformed officers,^[2][3] as well as trial of federal officials impeached by the House. The Senate is both a more deliberative^[4] and more prestigious^[5][6][7] body than the House of Representatives, due to its longer terms, smaller size, and statewide constituencies, which historically led to a more collegial and less partisan atmosphere.^[8] Sony  VAIO VGP-BPS13/S Battery The Senate is sometimes called the "world's greatest deliberative body." The framers of the Constitution created a bicameral Congress primarily as a compromise between those who felt that each state, since it was sovereign, should be equally represented, and those who felt the legislature must directly represent the people, as the House of Commons did in Britain. Sony  VAIO VGP-BPS13A/S Battery There was also a desire to have two Houses that could act as an internal check on each other. One was intended to be a "People's House" directly elected by the people, and with short terms obliging the representatives to remain close to their constituents. The other was intended to represent the states to such extent as they retained their sovereignty except for the powers expressly delegated to the national government. Sony  VAIO VGP-BPS13B/S Battery The Senate was thus not intended to represent the people of the United States equally. The Constitution provides that the approval of both chambers is necessary for the passage of legislation.^[13] The Senate of the United States was formed on the example of the ancient Roman Senate. Sony  VAIO VGP-BPS13/Q Battery The name is derived from thesenatus, Latin for council of elders (from senex meaning old man in Latin).^[14] The Constitution stipulates that no constitutional amendment may be created to deprive a state of its equal suffragein the Senate without that state's consent. Sony  VAIO VGP-BPS13A/Q Battery The District of Columbia and all other territories (including territories, protectorates, etc.) are not entitled to representation in either House of the Congress. The District of Columbia elects two shadow senators, but they are officials of the D.C. city government and not members of the U.S. Senate.^[15] The United States has had 50 states since 1959,^[16] thus the Senate has had 100 senators since 1959.^[17] Sony  VAIO VGP-BPS13B/Q Battery The disparity between the most and least populous states has grown since the Connecticut Compromise, which granted each state two members of the Senate and at least one member of the House of Representatives, for a total minimum of three presidential Electors, regardless of population. Sony  VGP-BPS21 Battery In 1787, Virginia had roughly 10 times the population of Rhode Island, whereas today California has roughly 70 times the population of Wyoming, based on the 1790 and 2000 censuses. This means some citizens are effectively two orders of magnitude better represented in the Senate than those in other states. Sony  VGP-BPS21A Battery Seats in the House of Representatives are approximately proportionate to the population of each state, reducing the disparity of representation. Before the passage of the Seventeenth Amendment, senators were elected by the individual state legislatures.^[18] Sony  VGP-BPS21B Battery However, problems with repeated vacant seats due to the inability of a legislature to elect senators, intrastate political struggles, and even bribery and intimidation gradually led to a growing movement to amend the Constitution to allow for the direct election of senators. Sony  VGP-BPS21/S Battery Article I, Section 3 of the Constitution sets three qualifications for senators: 1) they must be at least 30 years old, 2) they must have been citizens of the United States for at least the past nine years, and 3) they must be inhabitants of the states they seek to represent at the time of their election. Sony  VGP-BPS21A/b Battery The age and citizenship qualifications for senators are more stringent than those for representatives. In Federalist No. 62, James Madison justified this arrangement by arguing that the "senatorial trust" called for a "greater extent of information and stability of character." Sony VGP-BPS26 Battery The Senate (not the judiciary) is the sole judge of a senator's qualifications. During its early years, however, the Senate did not closely scrutinize the qualifications of its members. As a result, three senators who failed to meet the age qualification were nevertheless admitted to the Senate: Henry Clay (aged 29 in 1806), Sony VGP-BPL26 Battery Armistead Thomson Mason (aged 28 in 1816), and John Eaton (aged 28 in 1818). Such an occurrence, however, has not been repeated since.^[20] In 1934,Rush D. Holt, Sr. was elected to the Senate at the age of 29; he waited until he turned 30 (on the following June 19) to take the oath of office. Sony VGP-BPS26A Battery In November 1972, Joe Biden was elected to the Senate at the age of 29, but he reached his 30th birthday before the swearing-in ceremony for incoming senators in January 1973. The Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution disqualifies from the Senate any federal or state officers who had taken the requisite oath to support the Constitution, Sony VGP-BPS22 Battery but later engaged in rebellion or aided the enemies of the United States. This provision, which came into force soon after the end of the Civil War, was intended to prevent those who had sided with the Confederacy from serving. That Amendment, however, also provides a method to remove that disqualification: a two-thirds vote of both chambers of Congress. Sony VGP-BPL22 Battery Originally, senators were selected by the state legislatures, not by popular elections. By the early years of the 20th century, the legislatures of as many as 29 states had provided for popular election of senators by referendums.^[21]Popular election to the Senate was standardized nationally in 1913 by the ratification of the 17th Amendment. Sony VGP-BPS22A Battery Senators serve terms of six years each; the terms are staggered so that approximately one-third of the seats are up for election every two years. This was achieved by dividing the senators of the 1st Congress into thirds (called classes), where the terms of one-third expired after two years, the terms of another third expired after four, Sony VAIO PCG-3B1M Battery and the terms of the last third expired after six years. This arrangement was also followed after the admission of new states into the union. The staggering of terms has been arranged such that both seats from a given state are not contested in the same general election, except when a mid-term vacancy is being filled. Sony VAIO PCG-3D1M Battery Current senators whose six-year terms expire on January 3, 2015, belong to Class II. A member who has been elected, but not yet seated, is called a "senator-elect"; a member who has been appointed to a seat, but not yet seated, is called a "senator-designate".Sony VAIO PCG-3G2M Battery Elections to the Senate are held on the first Tuesday after the first Monday in November in even-numbered years,Election Day, and coincide with elections for the House of Representatives.^[22] Senators are elected by their state as a whole. In most states (since 1970), a primary election is held first for the Republican and Democratic parties, Sony VAIO PCG-5R1M Battery with the general election following a few months later. Ballot access rules for independent and minor party candidates vary from state to state. The winner is the candidate who receives a plurality of the popular vote. In some states, runoffs are held if no candidate wins a majority. Sony VAIO PCG-7162M Battery The Seventeenth Amendment requires mid-term vacancies in the Senate to be filled by special election. If a special election for one seat happens to coincide with a general election for the state's other seat, each seat is contested separately. A senator elected in a special election takes office as soon as possible after the election and serves until the original six-year term expires (i.e. not for a full term). Sony VAIO PCG-7181M Battery The Seventeenth Amendment also allows state legislatures to give their governors the power to appoint temporary senators until the special election takes place. The official wording provides that "the legislature of any State may empower the executive thereof to make temporary appointments until the people fill the vacancies by election as the legislature may direct." Sony VAIO PCG-41112M Battery As of 2009, forty-six states permit governors to make such appointments. For this reason, in most states, a special election for a U.S. Senate seat is not often held immediately after the vacancy arises, but is often held at the next biennial congressional election. The temporary appointee may run for the seat in his or her own right. Sony VAIO PCG-7153M Battery Oregon and Wisconsin require special elections for vacancies with no interim appointment, and Oklahoma permits the governor to appoint only the winner of a special election.^[23] In September 2009, Massachusetts changed its law to enable the governor to appoint a temporary replacement for the late Senator Kennedy until the special election in January 2010. Sony VAIO PCG-71312M Battery In 2004, Alaska enacted legislation and a separate ballot referendum that took effect on the same day, but that conflicted with each other. The effect of the ballot-approved law is to withhold from the governor authority to appoint a senator.^[26] Because the 17th Amendment vests the power to grant that authority to the legislature –Sony VAIO PCG-7144M Battery not the people or the state generally – it is unclear whether the ballot measure supplants the legislature's statute granting that authority.^[26] As a result, it is uncertain whether an Alaska governor may appoint an interim senator to serve until a special election is held to fill the vacancy. Sony VAIO PCG-7191L Battery In 2009, Wisconsin Democratic Senator Russ Feingold announced he would introduce a bill proposing a constitutional amendment to rescind the power of interim appointment by governors. The Constitution requires that senators take an oath or affirmation to support the Constitution.^[30] Congress has prescribed the following oath for new senators: Sony VAIO PCG-3C1M Battery I, ___ ___, do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will support and defend the Constitution of the United States against all enemies, foreign and domestic; that I will bear true faith and allegiance to the same; that I take this obligation freely, without any mental reservation or purpose of evasion; Sony VAIO PCG-3F1M Battery and that I will well and faithfully discharge the duties of the office on which I am about to enter. So help me God. The annual salary of each senator, as of 2009, is $174,000;^[32] the president pro tempore and party leaders receive $193,400.^[33] In June 2003, at least 40 of the then-senators were millionaires.^[34] Sony VAIO PCG-3H1M Battery Along with earning salaries, senators receive retirement and health benefits that are identical to other federal employees, and are fully vested after five years of service.^[33] Senators are covered by the Federal Employees Retirement System (FERS) or Civil Service Retirement System (CSRS). Sony VAIO PCG-3J1M Battery As it is for federal employees, congressional retirement is funded through taxes and the participants' contributions. Under FERS, senators contribute 1.3% of their salary into the FERS retirement plan and pay 6.2% of their salary in Social Security taxes. The amount of a senator's pension depends on the years of service and the average of the highest 3 years of their salary. Sony VAIO PCG-8141M Battery The starting amount of a senator's retirement annuity may not exceed 80% of their final salary. In 2006, the average annual pension for retired senators and representatives under CSRS was $60,972, while those who retired under FERS, or in combination with CSRS, was $35,952. Sony VAIO PCG-8161M Battery Senators are regarded as more prominent political figures than members of the House of Representatives because there are fewer of them, and because they serve for longer terms, usually represent larger constituencies (the exception being House at-largedistricts, which similarly comprise entire states), sit on more committees, and have more staffers. Sony VAIO PCG-3C2M Battery Far more senators have been nominees for the presidency than representatives. Furthermore, three senators (Warren Harding, John F. Kennedy, and Barack Obama) have been elected president while serving in the Senate, while only one Representative (James Garfield) has been elected president while serving in the House, Sony VAIO PCG-5N2M Battery though Garfield was also a Senator-elect at the time of his election to the Presidency, having been chosen by the Ohio Legislature to fill a Senate vacancy. According to the convention of Senate seniority, the senator with the longer tenure in each state is known as the "senior senator"; the other is the "junior senator". Sony VAIO PCG-5P1M Battery This convention does not have official significance, though it is a factor in the selection of physical offices.^[35] In the 113th Congress, the most-senior "junior senator" is Tom Harkin of Iowa, who was sworn in on January 3, 1985 and is currently 7th in seniority, behind Chuck Grassley who was sworn in on January 3, 1981 and is currently 6th in seniority. Sony PCG-31211T Battery With the resignation of John Kerry, the most-junior "senior senator" is Elizabeth Warren of Massachusetts, who was sworn in on January 3, 2013 , and is currently 97th in seniority, ahead of senator William Cowan who is 100th in seniority. The Senate may expel a senator by a two-thirds vote. Fifteen senators have been expelled in the history of the Senate: Sony PCG-31311T Battery William Blount, for treason, in 1797, and fourteen in 1861 and 1862 for supporting the Confederate secession. Although no senator has been expelled since 1862, many senators have chosen to resign when faced with expulsion proceedings – for example, Bob Packwood in 1995. Sony PCG-51111T Battery The Senate has also censured and condemned senators; censure requires only a simple majority and does not remove a senator from office. Some senators have opted to withdraw from their re-election races rather than face certain censure or expulsion, such as Robert Torricelli in 2002. Sony PCG-81111T Battery The "Majority party" is the political party that either has a majority of seats or can form a coalition or caucus with a majority of seats; if two or more parties are tied, the vice president's affiliation determines which party is the majority party. The next-largest party is known as the minority party. Sony PCG-81311T Battery The president pro tempore, committee chairs, and some other officials are generally from the majority party; they have counterparts (for instance, the "ranking members" of committees) in the minority party. Independents and members of third parties (so long as they do not caucus with or support either of the larger parties) are not considered in determining which is the majority party. Sony VPCF138FC Battery The Democratic Party traditionally sits to the presiding officer's right, and the Republican Party traditionally sits to the presiding officer's left, regardless which party has a majority of seats.^[36] In this respect, the Senate differs from the House of Commons of the United Kingdom and other parliamentary bodies in the Commonwealth of Nations and elsewhere. Sony VPCF219FC Battery The Vice President of the United States presides over the Senate,^[1] but the party leaders have the real power and they control procedure. Many non-member officers are also hired to run the day-to-day functions of the Senate. The Vice President of the United States is the ex officio President of the Senate, Sony VPCS135EC Battery with authority to preside over the Senate's sessions, although he can vote only to break a tie.^[1] For decades the task of presiding over Senate sessions was one of the vice president's principal duties. Since the 1950s, vice presidents have presided over few Senate debates. Sony VPCS136EC Battery Instead, they have usually presided only on ceremonial occasions, such as joint sessions, or at times when a tie vote on an important issue is anticipated. The Constitution authorizes the Senate to elect a president pro tempore (Latin for "president for a time") to preside in the vice president's absence; Sony VPCS138EC Battery the most senior senator of the majority party is customarily chosen to serve in this position.^[1] Like the vice president, the president pro tempore does not normally preside over the Senate, but typically delegates the responsibility of presiding to junior senators of the majority party, usually in blocks of one hour on a rotating basis. Sony VPCS139GC Battery Frequently, freshmen senators (newly elected members) are asked to preside so that they may become accustomed to the rules and procedures of the body. The presiding officer sits in a chair in the front of the Senate chamber. The powers of the presiding officer of the Senate are far less extensive than those of the Speaker of the House. Sony VPCYA15EC Battery The presiding officer calls on senators to speak (by the rules of the Senate, the first senator who rises is recognized); ruling onpoints of order (objections by senators that a rule has been breached, subject to appeal to the whole chamber); and announcing the results of votes. Sony VPCYA16EC Battery Each party elects Senate party leaders. Floor leaders act as the party chief spokespeople. The Senate Majority Leader is responsible for controlling the agenda of the chamber by scheduling debates and votes. Each party elects an assistant leader (whip) who works to ensure that their party's senators vote as the party leadership desires. Sony VPCYA25EC Battery The Senate is served by several officials who are not members. The Senate's chief administrative officer is the Secretary of the Senate, who maintains public records, disburses salaries, monitors the acquisition of stationery and supplies, and oversees clerks. The Assistant Secretary of the Senate aids the secretary in his or her work. Sony VPCYA26EC Battery Another official is the Sergeant at Arms who, as the Senate's chief law enforcement officer, maintains order and security on the Senate premises. The Capitol Police handle routine police work, with the sergeant at arms primarily responsible for general oversight. Other employees include theChaplain, who is elected by the Senate, and Pages, who are appointed. Sony VPCYB15JC Battery The Senate uses Standing Rules of the Senate for operation. Like the House of Representatives, the Senate meets in the United States Capitol in Washington, D.C. At one end of the chamber of the Senate is a dais from which the presiding officerpresides. The lower tier of the dais is used by clerks and other officials. Sony VPCYA17GH/R Battery One hundred desks are arranged in the chamber in a semicircular pattern and are divided by a wide central aisle. By tradition, Republicans sit to the right of the center aisle and Democrats to the left, facing the presiding officer.^[37] Each senator chooses a desk based on seniority within the party. By custom, the leader of each party sits in the front row along the center aisle. Sony VPCCW2S8E/W Battery Sessions of the Senate are opened with a special prayer or invocation and typically convene on weekdays. Sessions of the Senate are generally open to the public and are broadcast live on television, usually by C-SPAN 2. Senate procedure depends not only on the rules, but also on a variety of customs and traditions. Sony VPCCW2Z1E/B Battery The Senate commonly waives some of its stricter rules by unanimous consent. Unanimous consent agreements are typically negotiated beforehand by party leaders. A senator may block such an agreement, but in practice, objections are rare. The presiding officer enforces the rules of the Senate, and may warn members who deviate from them. Sony VPCY11S1E Battery The presiding officer sometimes uses the gavel of the Senate to maintain order. A "hold" is placed when the leader's office is notified that a senator intends to object to a request for unanimous consent from the Senate to consider or pass a measure. A hold may be placed for any reason and can be lifted by a senator at any time. Sony VPCY11S1E/S Battery A senator may place a hold simply to review a bill, to negotiate changes to the bill, or to kill the bill. A bill can be held for as long as the senator who objects to the bill wishes to block its consideration. Holds can be overcome, but require time-consuming procedures such as filing cloture. Sony VPCW1 Battery Holds are considered private communications between a senator and the Leader, and are sometimes referred to as "secret holds". A senator may disclose that he or she has placed a hold. The Constitution provides that a majority of the Senate constitutes a quorum to do business. Sony VPCW1E8R/BU Battery Under the rules and customs of the Senate, a quorum is always assumed present unless a quorum call explicitly demonstrates otherwise. A senator may request a quorum call by "suggesting the absence of a quorum"; a clerk then calls the roll of the Senate and notes which members are present. Sony VPCY11AGJ Battery In practice, senators rarely request quorum calls to establish the presence of a quorum. Instead, quorum calls are generally used to temporarily delay proceedings; usually such delays are used while waiting for a senator to reach the floor to speak or to give leaders time to negotiate. Sony VPCY11AHJ Battery Once the need for a delay has ended, a senator may request unanimous consent to rescind the quorum call. Debate, like most other matters governing the internal functioning of the Senate, is governed by internal rules adopted by the Senate. Sony VPCY11AVJ Battery During debate, senators may only speak if called upon by the presiding officer, but the presiding officer is required to recognize the first senator who rises to speak. Thus, the presiding officer has little control over the course of debate. Customarily, the Majority Leader and Minority Leader are accorded priority during debates even if another senator rises first. Sony VPCY11M1E Battery All speeches must be addressed to the presiding officer, who is addressed as "Mr. President" or "Madam President", and not to another member; other Members must be referred to in the third person. In most cases, senators do not refer to each other by name, but by state or position, Sony VPCY11S1E Battery using forms such as "the senior senator from Virginia", "the gentlewoman from California", or "my distinguished friend the Chairman of the Judiciary Committee". Senators address the Senate standing next to their desk.^[38] Apart from rules governing civility, there are few restrictions on the content of speeches; there is no requirement that speeches be germane to the matter before the Senate. Sony VPCY11V9E Battery The rules of the Senate provide that no senator may make more than two speeches on a motion or bill on the same legislative day. A legislative day begins when the Senate convenes and ends with adjournment; hence, it does not necessarily coincide with the calendar day. The length of these speeches is not limited by the rules; Sony VPCY11V9E/S Battery thus, in most cases, senators may speak for as long as they please. Often, the Senate adopts unanimous consent agreements imposing time limits. In other cases (for example, for the budget process), limits are imposed by statute. However, the right to unlimited debate is generally preserved. Sony VPCY219FJ/S Battery The filibuster is a tactic used to defeat bills and motions by prolonging debate indefinitely. A filibuster may entail long speeches, dilatory motions, and an extensive series of proposed amendments. The Senate may end a filibuster by invoking cloture. In most cases, cloture requires the support of three-fifths of the Senate; Sony VPCY21AFJ Battery however, if the matter before the Senate involves changing the rules of the body – this includes amending provisions regarding the filibuster – a two-thirds majority is required. In current practice, the threat of filibuster is more important than its use; almost any motion that does not have the support of three-fifths of the Senate effectively fails. Sony VPCY21AGJ Battery This means that 41 senators, which could represent as little as 12.3% of the U.S. population, can make a filibuster happen. Historically, cloture has rarely been invoked because bipartisan support is usually necessary to obtain the required supermajority, so a bill that already has bipartisan support is rarely subject to threats of filibuster. Sony VPCY21AHJ Battery However, motions for cloture have increased significantly in recent years. If the Senate invokes cloture, debate does not end immediately; instead, it is limited to 2 additional hours unless increased by another three-fifths vote. The longest filibuster speech in the history of the Senate was delivered by Strom Thurmond, Sony VPCY21AVJ Battery who spoke for over 24 hours in an unsuccessful attempt to block the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1957.^[39] Under certain circumstances, the Congressional Budget Act of 1974 provides for a process called "reconciliation" by which Congress can pass bills related to the budget without those bills being subject to a filibuster. Sony VPCY21S1E/L Battery This is accomplished by limiting all Senate floor debate to 20 hours. When debate concludes, the motion in question is put to a vote. The Senate often votes by voice vote. The presiding officer puts the question, and Members respond either "Yea" (in favor of the motion) or "Nay" (against the motion). Sony VPCY21S1E/P Battery The presiding officer then announces the result of the voice vote. A senator, however, may challenge the presiding officer's assessment and request a recorded vote. The request may be granted only if it is seconded by one-fifth of the senators present. In practice, however, senators second requests for recorded votes as a matter of courtesy. Sony VPCY21S1E/SI Battery When a recorded vote is held, the clerk calls the roll of the Senate in alphabetical order; senators respond when their name is called. Senators who were not in the chamber when their name was called may still cast a vote so long as the voting remains open. The vote is closed at the discretion of the presiding officer, but must remain open for a minimum of 15 minutes. Sony VPCCW1E8R/WU Battery If the vote is tied, the vice president, if present, is entitled to cast a tie-breaking vote. If the vice president is not present, the motion fails.^[41] Bills which are filibustered require a three fifth majority to overcome the cloture vote (which usually means 60 votes) and get to the normal vote where a simple majority (usually 51 votes) will approve the bill. Sony VPCCW1S1E Battery This has caused some news media to confuse the 60 votes needed to overcome a filibuster with the 51 votes needed to approve a bill, with for example USA Today erroneously stating "The vote was 58-39 in favor of the provision establishing concealed carry permit reciprocity in the 48 states that have concealed weapons laws.Sony VAIO PCG-5S1M Battery That fell two votes short of the 60 needed to approve the measure". On occasion, the Senate may go into what is called a secret or closed session. During a closed session, the chamber doors are closed, cameras are turned off, and the galleries are completely cleared of anyone not sworn to secrecy, not instructed in the rules of the closed session, or not essential to the session. Sony VAIO PCG-9Z1M Battery Closed sessions are rare and usually held only when the Senate is discussing sensitive subject matter such as information critical to national security, private communications from the president, or deliberations during impeachment trials. A senator may call for and force a closed session if the motion is seconded by at least one other member, Sony VAIO PCG-7171M Battery but an agreement usually occurs beforehand.^[43] If the Senate does not approve release of a secret transcript, the transcript is stored in the Office of Senate Security and ultimately sent to the national archives. The proceedings remain sealed indefinitely until the Senate votes to remove the injunction of secrecy. Sony VAIO PCG-7186M Battery The Senate maintains a Senate Calendar and an Executive Calendar.^[45] The former identifies bills and resolutions awaiting Senate floor actions. The latter identifies executive resolutions, treaties, and nominations reported out by Senate committee(s) and awaiting Senate floor action. Both are updated each day the Senate is in session. Sony VAIO PCG-81112M Battery The Senate uses committees (and their subcommittees) for a variety of purposes, including the review of bills and the oversight of the executive branch. Formally, the whole Senate appoints committee members. In practice, however, the choice of members is made by the political parties. Sony VAIO PCG-31111M Battery Generally, each party honors the preferences of individual senators, giving priority based on seniority. Each party is allocated seats on committees in proportion to its overall strength. Most committee work is performed by 16 standing committees, each of which has jurisdiction over a field such as finance orforeign relations. Sony VAIO PCG-31311M Battery Each standing committee may consider, amend, and report bills that fall under its jurisdiction. Furthermore, each standing committee considers presidential nominations to offices related to its jurisdiction. (For instance, the Judiciary Committee considers nominees for judgeships, and the Foreign Relations Committee considers nominees for positions in the Department of State.) Sony VAIO PCG-8152M Battery Committees may block nominees and impede bills from reaching the floor of the Senate. Standing committees also oversee the departments and agencies of the executive branch. In discharging their duties, standing committees have the power to hold hearings and to subpoena witnesses and evidence. Sony VAIO PCG-61111M Battery The Senate also has several committees that are not considered standing committees. Such bodies are generally known as select or special committees; examples include the Select Committee on Ethics and the Special Committee on Aging. Legislation is referred to some of these committees, Sony PCG-71213M Battery although the bulk of legislative work is performed by the standing committees. Committees may be established on an ad hoc basis for specific purposes; for instance, the Senate Watergate Committee was a special committee created to investigate the Watergate scandal. Such temporary committees cease to exist after fulfilling their tasks. Sony PCG-71311M Battery The Congress includes joint committees, which include members from both the Senate and the House of Representatives. Some joint committees oversee independent government bodies; for instance, the Joint Committee on the Library oversees the Library of Congress. Other joint committees serve to make advisory reports; Sony PCG-71312M Battery for example, there exists a Joint Committee on Taxation. Bills and nominees are not referred to joint committees. Hence, the power of joint committees is considerably lower than those of standing committees. Each Senate committee and subcommittee is led by a chair (usually a member of the majority party). Sony PCG-71212M Battery Formerly, committee chairs were determined purely by seniority; as a result, several elderly senators continued to serve as chair despite severe physical infirmity or even senility.^[46] Committee chairs are elected, but, in practice, seniority is rarely bypassed. The chairs hold extensive powers: Sony PCG-71811M Battery they control the committee's agenda, and so decide how much, if any, time to devote to the consideration of a bill; they act with the power of the committee in disapproving or delaying a bill or a nomination by the president; they manage on the floor of the full Senate the consideration of those bills the committee reports. Sony PCG-71911M Battery This last role was particularly important in mid-century, when floor amendments were thought not to be collegial. They also have considerable influence: senators who cooperate with their committee chairs are likely to accomplish more good for their states than those who do not. Sony PCG-91211M Battery The Senate rules and customs were reformed in the twentieth century, largely in the 1970s. Committee chairmen have less power and are generally more moderate and collegial in exercising it, than they were before reform.^[47] The second-highest member, the spokesperson on the committee for the minority party, is known in most cases as the ranking member.^[48] Sony PCG-91111M Battery In the Select Committee on Intelligence and the Select Committee on Ethics, however, the senior minority member is known as the vice chair. Recent criticisms of the Senate's operations object to what the critics argue is obsolescence as a result of partisan paralysis and a preponderance of arcane rules. Sony VAIO PCG-5J4M Battery Bills may be introduced in either chamber of Congress. However, Article One of the U.S. Constitution provides that "All bills for raising Revenue shall originate in the House of Representatives".^[52] As a result, the Senate does not have the power to initiate bills imposing taxes. Sony VAIO PCG-5K1M Battery Furthermore, the House of Representatives holds that the Senate does not have the power to originate appropriation bills, or bills authorizing the expenditure of federal funds.^[Historically, the Senate has disputed the interpretation advocated by the House. However, when the Senate originates an appropriations bill, Sony VAIO PCG-5K2M Battery the House simply refuses to consider it, thereby settling the dispute in practice.^{[citation needed]} The constitutional provision barring the Senate from introducing revenue bills is based on the practice of the British Parliament, in which only the House of Commons may originate such measures. Sony VAIO PCG-5J5M Battery Although the Constitution gave the House the power to initiate revenue bills, in practice the Senate is equal to the House in the respects of taxation and spending. As Woodrow Wilson wrote: The Senate's right to amend general appropriation bills has been allowed the widest possible scope. Sony VAIO PCG-5L2M Battery