| Extensive research using improved epidemiologic methods and modern laboratory techniques documents diverse and compelling advantages for infants, mothers, families, and society from breastfeeding and use of human milk for infant feeding. HP Pavilion dv7-1157cl CPU FanThese advantages include health, nutritional, immunologic, developmental, psychologic, social, economic, and environmental benefits.[17] | ” |
Wednesday, November 27, 2013
Breastfeeding
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Breastfeeding is the feeding of an infant or young child with breast milk directly from female human breasts (i.e., vialactation) rather than using infant formula. Babies have a sucking reflex that enables them to suck and swallow milk. Experts recommend that children be breastfed within one hour of birth, exclusively breastfed for the first six months, and then breastfed until age two with age-appropriate, nutritionally adequate and safe complementary foods.[ DELL Precision M6400 CPU Fan
The American Academy of Pediatrics recommends for the U.S. that after 6 months of exclusive breastfeeding, babies should continue to breastfeed "for a year and for as long as is mutually desired by the mother and baby".[6] Inadequate nutrition is an underlying cause of the deaths of more than 2.6 million children and over 100,000 mothers every year.[1] Compaq Presario CQ60-615DX CPU Fan
Some working mothers express milk to be used while their child is being cared for by others.
Breastfeeding was the rule in ancient times up to recent human history, and babies were carried with the mother and fed as required. With 18th and 19th century industrialization in the Western world, mothers in many urban centers began dispensing with breastfeeding due to their work requirements. HP Pavilion dv2660se CPU Fan
Breastfeeding declined significantly from 1900 to 1960, due to increasingly negative social attitudes towards the practice and the development of infant formula.[7] Under modern health care, human breast milk is considered the healthiest form of milk for babies.[8] From the 1960s onwards, breastfeeding experienced a revival which continues to the 2000s, though some negative attitudes towards the practice still remain. Toshiba Satellite L500-1XC CPU Fan
Breastfeeding promotes the health of both mother and infant and helps to prevent disease.[9][10][11] Longer breastfeeding has also been associated with better mental health through childhood and into adolescence.[12] Experts agree that breastfeeding is beneficial and have concerns about the effects of artificial formulas. DELL GM0503PEB1-8 (L2.M) CPU Fan
Artificial feeding is associated with more deaths from diarrhea in infants in both developing and developed countries.[13] There are, however, a few exceptions, such as when the mother is taking certain drugs, has active untreated tuberculosis or is infected with human T-lymphotropic virus. HP Pavilion dv7-1098eo CPU Fan
TheWorld Health Organization recommends that national authorities in each country decide which infant feeding practice should be promoted and supported by their maternal and child health services to best avoid HIV infection transmission from mother to child.
In the Egyptian, Greek and Roman empires, women usually fed only their own children. Toshiba Satellite A205-S5804 CPU Fan
However, breastfeeding began to be seen as something too common to be done by royalty, and wet nurses were employed to breastfeed the children of the royal families. This extended over time, particularly in western Europe, where noble women often made use of wet nurses. HP Pavilion dv7-1240us CPU Fan
But lower class women breastfed their infants and used a wet nurse only if they were unable to feed their own infant. Attempts were made in 15th-century Europe to use cow or goat milk, but these attempts were not successful. In the 18th century, flour or cereal mixed with broth were introduced as substitutes for breastfeeding, but this did not have a favorable outcome either. DELL yy529 CPU Fan
During the early 1900s breastfeeding started to be viewed negatively by Western societies, especially in Canada and the USA. These societies considered it a low class and uncultured practice, viewing it with a certain degree of disgust.[14] This coincided with the appearance of improved infant formulas in the mid 19th century and its increased use, which accelerated after World War II. Toshiba Qosmio G40-10E CPU Fan
From the 1960s onwards, breastfeeding experienced a revival which continues to the 2000s, though negative attitudes towards the practice were still intrenched up to 1990s.
The vast majority of mothers can and should breastfeed, just as the vast majority of infants can and should be breastfed. SONY Vaio VGN-CR407E CPU Fan
Only under exceptional circumstances can a mother’s milk be considered unsuitable for her infant. For those few health situations where infants cannot, or should not, be breastfed, the choice of the best alternative–expressed breast milk from an infant’s own mother, breast milk from a healthy wet-nurse or ahuman-milk bank, HP Pavilion dv6-1101au CPU Fan
or a breast-milk substitute fed with a cup, which is a safer method than a feeding bottle and teat–depends on individual circumstances.Exclusive breastfeeding (giving your baby breast milk only) is recommended for around the first six months (26 weeks) of your baby's life. After that, giving your baby breast milk alongside other food will help them continue to grow and develop. HP Pavilion dv7-3190ev CPU Fan
Any amount of breastfeeding has a positive effect. The longer you breastfeed, the longer the protection lasts and the greater the benefits.
The AAP recommends exclusive breastfeeding for the first six months of life.[17] Furthermore, "breastfeeding should be continued for at least the first year of life and beyond for as long as mutually desired by mother and child." HP COMPAQ NX9420 CPU Fan
According to the CDC, "The success rate among mothers who want to breastfeed can be greatly improved through active support from their families, friends, communities, clinicians, health care leaders, employers, and policymakers. Given the importance of breastfeeding for the health and well-being of mothers and children, it is critical that we take action across the country to support breastfeeding." HP Mini 110-1110ET CPU Fan
Not all the properties of breast milk are understood, but its nutrient content is relatively stable. Breast milk is made from nutrients in the mother's bloodstream and bodily stores. Breast milk has just the right amount of fat, sugar, water, andprotein that is needed for a baby's growth and development.[19] HP Pavilion dv7-1157cl CPU Fan
Because breastfeeding uses an average of 500 calories a day, it helps the mother lose weight after giving birth.[20] The composition of breast milk changes depending on how long the baby nurses at each session, as well as on the age of the child.
The quality of a mother's breast milk may be compromised by smoking, alcoholic beverages, caffeinated drinks, marijuana,methamphetamine, heroin, and methadone.[21] HP Pavilion dv6-3163eo CPU Fan
However, the American Academy of Pediatrics states that "Tobacco smoking by mothers is not a contraindication to breastfeeding."[17] In addition, the AAP states that while breastfeeding mothers "should avoid the use of alcoholic beverages," an "occasional celebratory single, small alcoholic drink is acceptable, but breastfeeding should be avoided for 2 hours after the drink." HP Pavilion dv9740us CPU Fan
Scientific research, such as the studies summarized in a 2007 review for the U.S. Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality(AHRQ)[22] and a 2007 review for the WHO,[23] have found numerous benefits of breastfeeding for the infant. According to theAmerican Academy of Pediatrics, research shows that breast feeding provides advantages with regard to general health, growth, and development. ACER Aspire 4743 CPU Fan
Not breastfeeding significantly increases risk for a large number of acute and chronic diseases including lower respiratory infection, ear infections, bacteremia, bacterial meningitis, botulism, urinary tract infection, and necrotizing enterocolitis.They state that there are a number of studies that show a possible protective effect of breast milk feeding against sudden infant death syndrome, HP Pavilion dv6-2170us CPU Fan
insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus, Crohn's disease, ulcerative colitis,lymphoma, allergic diseases, digestive diseases, and a possible enhancement of cognitive development.
During breastfeeding, approximately 0.25-0.5 grams per day of secretory IgA antibodies pass to the baby via the milk.[25][26]This is one of the most important features of colostrum, Toshiba Satellite L675-S7018 CPU Fan
the breast milk created for newborns.[27] The main target for these antibodies are probably microorganisms in the baby's intestine. There is some uptake of IgA to the rest of the body,[28] but this amount is relatively small.[29] Also, breast milk contains several anti-infective factors such as bile salt stimulated lipase (protecting against amoebic infections) and lactoferrin (which binds to iron and inhibits the growth of intestinal bacteria). ASUS F80Q CPU Fan
Among the studies showing that non-breastfed infants have a higher risk of infection than breastfed infants are:
In a 1993 University of Texas Medical Branch study, a longer period of breastfeeding was associated with a shorter duration of some middle ear infections (otitis media with effusion) in the first two years of life.[32] ACER TravelMate 4200 CPU Fan
A 1995 study of 87 infants found that breastfed babies had half the incidence of diarrheal illness, 19% fewer cases of any otitis media (middle ear) infections, and 80% fewer prolonged cases of middle ear infections than formula fed babies in the first twelve months of life.[33]
Breastfeeding appeared to reduce symptoms of upper respiratory tract infections in premature infants up to seven months after release from hospital in a 2002 study of 39 infants.[34] HP 434678-001 CPU Fan
A 2004 case-control study found that breastfeeding reduced the risk of acquiring urinary tract infections in infants up to seven months of age, with the protection strongest immediately after birth.The 2007 review for AHRQ found that breastfeeding reduced the risk of acute otitis media, non-specific gastroenteritis, and severe lower respiratory tract infections. HP G70-120EA CPU Fan
In a review article published in the journal Pediatrics, data from 2001 to 2012 were analyzed to discern any safety issue for mothers being vaccinated while breastfeeding. The American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) concludes that it is safe for women to receive almost all vaccines while nursing their infants. Toshiba Satellite A300-034 CPU Fan
The study further found that the protected immunity of the mother obtained by vaccination against tetanus, diphtheria, whooping cough and influenza can pass on to the baby, and that breastfeeding can reduce fever rate after infant immunization. Exceptions are smallpox and yellow fever vaccines which increase the risk of infants developing vaccinia and encephalitis. HP 606609-001 CPU Fan
In all other cases AAP recommends women continue breastfeeding after vaccination.
Formula fed babies have worse arousal from sleep at 2–3 months. This coincides with the peak incidence of sudden infant death syndrome.A study conducted at the University of Münster found that formula feeding doubled the risk of sudden infant death syndrome in children up to the age of 1. Compaq Presario CQ60-301sl CPU Fan
Infants exclusively breastfed have less chance of developing diabetes mellitus type 1 than those with a shorter duration of breastfeeding and an earlier exposure to cow milk and solid foods.Breastfeeding also appears to protect against diabetes mellitus type 2, at least in part due to its effects on the child's weight. TOSHIBA Satellite L300 CPU Fan
Breastfeeding for more than 6 months is an independent predictor of better mental health through childhood and adolescence according to a large 2009 study.[12]The more months children were breastfed the less likely they were to suffer from depression, delinquent behavior, attention issues and other psychological problems.[12] Breastfeeding also improves cognitive development according to a number of other studies. ASUS Eee PC 701 CPU Fan
The beneficial effects seem to stem in large part from the unique composition of human milk which, compared to formula milk, has been shown to lead to improved motor and cognitive development in pre-term babies as well.
Breastfeeding appears to reduce the risk of extreme obesity in children. Compaq Presario CQ60-305sa CPU Fan
The protective effect of breastfeeding against obesity is consistent, though small, across many studies, and appears to increase with the duration of breastfeeding.
A study has also shown that infants who are bottle-fed in early infancy are more likely to empty the bottle or cup in late infancy than those who are breastfed. HP 637607-001 CPU Fan
"Bottle-feeding, regardless of the type of milk, is distinct from feeding at the breast in its effect on infants' self-regulation of milk intake." According to the study, this may be due to one of three possible factors, including that when bottle feeding, parents may encourage an infant to finish the contents of the bottle whereas when breastfeeding, an infant naturally develops self-regulation of milk intake.[ HP Pavilion dv7-3067nr CPU Fan
A study in Today's Pediatrics associates solid food given too early to Formula-fed babies before 4 months old will make them 6 times as likely to become obese by age 3. It does not happen if the babies were given solid foods with breast feeding.
In children who are at risk for developing allergic diseases (defined as at least one parent or sibling having atopy), HP Pavilion dv5-1210ez CPU Fan
atopic syndrome can be prevented or delayed through exclusive breastfeeding for four months, though these benefits may not be present after four months of age.[48] However, the key factor may be the age at which non-breastmilk is introduced rather than duration of breastfeeding.[ Compaq Presario CQ50-211nr CPU Fan
Atopic dermatitis, the most common form of eczema, can be reduced through exclusive breastfeeding beyond 12 weeks in individuals with a family history of atopy, but when breastfeeding beyond 12 weeks is combined with other foods incidents of eczema rise irrespective of family history. HP G56-114SA CPU Fan
Necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC) is an acute inflammatory disease in the intestines of infants. Necrosis or death of intestinal tissue may follow. It is mainly found in premature births. In one study of 926 preterm infants, NEC developed in 51 infants (5.5%). The death rate from necrotizing enterocolitis was 26%. SONY Vaio VGN-CR21Z/N CPU Fan
NEC was found to be six to ten times more common in infants fed formula exclusively, and three times more common in infants fed a mixture of breast milk and formula, compared with exclusive breastfeeding. In infants born at more than 30 weeks, NEC was twenty times more common in infants fed exclusively on formula.[ HP Pavilion dv7-4060eo CPU Fan
A 2007 meta-analysis of four randomized controlled trials found "a marginally statistically significant association" between breastfeeding and a reduction in the risk of NEC.
Although one study showed no evidence that breastfeeding offers protection against allergies, another study showed a positive correlation between breastfeeding and a lower risk of asthma. Toshiba Satellite M70-252 CPU Fan
This study also showed that breastfeeding protects against allergies, and respiratory and intestinal infections.A review of the association between breastfeeding and celiac disease (CD) concluded that breast feeding while introducing gluten to the diet reduced the risk of CD. The study was unable to determine if breastfeeding merely delayed symptoms or offered lifelong protection.[ Toshiba Satellite A100-455 CPU Fan
According to the findings of a study conducted at the University of Wisconsin, women who were breastfed as infants may have a lower risk of developing breast cancer than those who were not breastfed.Breastfeeding may decrease the risk of cardiovascular disease in later life, as indicated by lower cholesterol and C-reactive protein levels in adult women who had been breastfed as infants. HP Pavilion dv5-2112br CPU Fan
Although a 2001 study suggested that adults who had been breastfed as infants had lower arterial distensibility than adults who had not been breastfed as infants,[56] the 2007 review for the WHO concluded that breastfed infants "experienced lower mean blood pressure" later in life.[ DELL BFB0505HA CPU Fan
A 2007 review for the AHRQ found that "there is an association between a history of breastfeeding during infancy and a small reduction in adult blood pressure, but the clinical or public health implication of this finding is unclear".[22] A 2006 study found that breastfed babies are better able to cope with stress later in life.[57] HP Pavilion dv6-3299en CPU Fan
In a paper selected by UNICEF as the “Breastfeeding Paper of the Month” it was suggested that breastfed babies have a better chance of good dental health than artificially fed infants because of the effects of breastfeeding on the development of the oral cavity and airway. It was thought that with fewer malocclusions, breastfed children may have a reduced need for orthodontic intervention. SONY Vaio VGN-NW11Z/T CPU Fan
The report also suggested that children with the proper development of a well rounded, "U-shaped" dental arch, which is found more commonly in breastfed children, may have fewer problems with snoring and sleep apnea in later life.
Studies have examined whether breastfeeding in infants is associated with higher intelligence later in life. Toshiba Satellite L550-20W CPU Fan
Possible association between breastfeeding and intelligence is not clear. The 2007 review for the AHRQ found "no relationship between breastfeeding in term infants and cognitive performance"[22] and in 2006, a prospective cohort study, sibling pairs analysis, and meta-analysis, concluded that "Breast feeding has little or no effect on intelligence in children."[5HP Pavilion dv7-4183sf CPU Fan
The researchers found that "Most of the observed association between breast feeding and cognitive development is the result of confounding by maternal intelligence."[59]
However a 2007 review for the World Health Organization "suggests that breastfeeding is associated with increased cognitive development in childhood." HP Pavilion dv7-3190ev CPU Fan
The review also states that "The issue remains of whether the association is related to the properties of breastmilk itself, or whether breastfeeding enhances the bonding between mother and child, and thus contributes to intellectual development."A 2005 study using data on 2,734 sibling pairs from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health "provide[d] persuasive evidence of a causal connection between breastfeeding and intelligence."HP KSB06105HA CPU Fan
In another study, cited as "the largest randomized trial ever conducted in the area of human lactation," between 1996 and 1997 maternity hospitals and polyclinics in Belarus were randomized to receive or not receive breastfeeding promotion modeled on the Baby Friendly Hospital Initiative.[61] HP G62-244CA CPU Fan
Of 13,889 infants born at these hospitals and polyclinics and followed up in 2002–2005, those who had been born in hospitals and polyclinics receiving breastfeeding promotion had IQs that were 2.9–7.5 points higher (which was significantly higher).[61] Since (among other reasons) a randomized trial should control for maternal IQ, HP Pavilion dv7-3190ei CPU Fan
the authors concluded in a 2008 paper that the data "provide strong evidence that prolonged and exclusive breastfeeding improves children's cognitive development."[61] Further research in 2013 has supported this theory.[62] One 2013 imaging study indicated that breastfed children experience 15-34% enhanced brain white matter development. HP G62-244CA CPU Fan
In 2007, A. Caspi et al. published a study “Moderation of breastfeeding effects on the IQ by genetic variation in fatty acid metabolism.” The authors noted that there is currently agreement in the scientific community that both genetic and environmental factors effect specific traits rather than one or another. ASUS A6000R CPU Fan
This fact inspired them to try to find a gene that mediates the well-researched phenomenon that children who are breast-fed have higher IQ. In their study they found that babies with a specific version of the FADS2 gene demonstrated an IQ averaging 7 points higher if breastfed, compared with babies with a less common version of the gene who showed no improvement when breastfed.[ HP Pavilion dv7-6011sg CPU Fan
FADS2 affects the metabolism of polyunsaturated fatty acids found in human breast milk, such asdocosahexaenoic acid and arachidonic acid, which are known to be linked to early brain development.[64] The researchers said "Our findings support the idea that the nutritional content of breast milk accounts for the differences seen in human IQ. Toshiba Satellite L300D-01P CPU Fan
But it's not a simple all-or-none connection: it depends to some extent on the genetic makeup of each infant"[65] and, "further investigation to replicate and explain this specific gene–environment interaction is warranted."[64]
However, an attempt to replicate this study in 5934 eight-year-old children failed: Compaq Presario CQ60-409CA CPU Fan
No relationship of the common C allele to negative effects of formula feeding was apparent, and contra to the original report, the rare GG homozygote children performed worse when formula fed than other children on formula milk. Another study of over 700 families also criticized the Caspi et al. study. HP Mini 110-3010sf CPU Fan
The study reported no evidence for either main or moderating effects of the original SNP (rs174575), nor of two additional FADS2 polymorphisms (rs1535 and rs174583), nor any effect of maternal FADS2 status on offspring IQ.
Breastfeeding is a cost-effective way of feeding an infant, providing nourishment for a child at a small cost to the mother. Toshiba Satellite L645D-S4056 CPU Fan
Breastfeeding
http://www.all-laptopfan.com/,http://www.all-keyboard.com/
Breastfeeding is the feeding of an infant or young child with breast milk directly from female human breasts (i.e., vialactation) rather than using infant formula. Babies have a sucking reflex that enables them to suck and swallow milk. Experts recommend that children be breastfed within one hour of birth, exclusively breastfed for the first six months, and then breastfed until age two with age-appropriate, nutritionally adequate and safe complementary foods.[ DELL Precision M6400 CPU Fan
The American Academy of Pediatrics recommends for the U.S. that after 6 months of exclusive breastfeeding, babies should continue to breastfeed "for a year and for as long as is mutually desired by the mother and baby".[6] Inadequate nutrition is an underlying cause of the deaths of more than 2.6 million children and over 100,000 mothers every year.[1] Compaq Presario CQ60-615DX CPU Fan
Some working mothers express milk to be used while their child is being cared for by others.
Breastfeeding was the rule in ancient times up to recent human history, and babies were carried with the mother and fed as required. With 18th and 19th century industrialization in the Western world, mothers in many urban centers began dispensing with breastfeeding due to their work requirements. HP Pavilion dv2660se CPU Fan
Breastfeeding declined significantly from 1900 to 1960, due to increasingly negative social attitudes towards the practice and the development of infant formula.[7] Under modern health care, human breast milk is considered the healthiest form of milk for babies.[8] From the 1960s onwards, breastfeeding experienced a revival which continues to the 2000s, though some negative attitudes towards the practice still remain. Toshiba Satellite L500-1XC CPU Fan
Breastfeeding promotes the health of both mother and infant and helps to prevent disease.[9][10][11] Longer breastfeeding has also been associated with better mental health through childhood and into adolescence.[12] Experts agree that breastfeeding is beneficial and have concerns about the effects of artificial formulas. DELL GM0503PEB1-8 (L2.M) CPU Fan
Artificial feeding is associated with more deaths from diarrhea in infants in both developing and developed countries.[13] There are, however, a few exceptions, such as when the mother is taking certain drugs, has active untreated tuberculosis or is infected with human T-lymphotropic virus. HP Pavilion dv7-1098eo CPU Fan
TheWorld Health Organization recommends that national authorities in each country decide which infant feeding practice should be promoted and supported by their maternal and child health services to best avoid HIV infection transmission from mother to child.
In the Egyptian, Greek and Roman empires, women usually fed only their own children. Toshiba Satellite A205-S5804 CPU Fan
However, breastfeeding began to be seen as something too common to be done by royalty, and wet nurses were employed to breastfeed the children of the royal families. This extended over time, particularly in western Europe, where noble women often made use of wet nurses. HP Pavilion dv7-1240us CPU Fan
But lower class women breastfed their infants and used a wet nurse only if they were unable to feed their own infant. Attempts were made in 15th-century Europe to use cow or goat milk, but these attempts were not successful. In the 18th century, flour or cereal mixed with broth were introduced as substitutes for breastfeeding, but this did not have a favorable outcome either. DELL yy529 CPU Fan
During the early 1900s breastfeeding started to be viewed negatively by Western societies, especially in Canada and the USA. These societies considered it a low class and uncultured practice, viewing it with a certain degree of disgust.[14] This coincided with the appearance of improved infant formulas in the mid 19th century and its increased use, which accelerated after World War II. Toshiba Qosmio G40-10E CPU Fan
From the 1960s onwards, breastfeeding experienced a revival which continues to the 2000s, though negative attitudes towards the practice were still intrenched up to 1990s.
The vast majority of mothers can and should breastfeed, just as the vast majority of infants can and should be breastfed. SONY Vaio VGN-CR407E CPU Fan
Only under exceptional circumstances can a mother’s milk be considered unsuitable for her infant. For those few health situations where infants cannot, or should not, be breastfed, the choice of the best alternative–expressed breast milk from an infant’s own mother, breast milk from a healthy wet-nurse or ahuman-milk bank, HP Pavilion dv6-1101au CPU Fan
or a breast-milk substitute fed with a cup, which is a safer method than a feeding bottle and teat–depends on individual circumstances.Exclusive breastfeeding (giving your baby breast milk only) is recommended for around the first six months (26 weeks) of your baby's life. After that, giving your baby breast milk alongside other food will help them continue to grow and develop. HP Pavilion dv7-3190ev CPU Fan
Any amount of breastfeeding has a positive effect. The longer you breastfeed, the longer the protection lasts and the greater the benefits.
The AAP recommends exclusive breastfeeding for the first six months of life.[17] Furthermore, "breastfeeding should be continued for at least the first year of life and beyond for as long as mutually desired by mother and child." HP COMPAQ NX9420 CPU Fan
According to the CDC, "The success rate among mothers who want to breastfeed can be greatly improved through active support from their families, friends, communities, clinicians, health care leaders, employers, and policymakers. Given the importance of breastfeeding for the health and well-being of mothers and children, it is critical that we take action across the country to support breastfeeding." HP Mini 110-1110ET CPU Fan
Not all the properties of breast milk are understood, but its nutrient content is relatively stable. Breast milk is made from nutrients in the mother's bloodstream and bodily stores. Breast milk has just the right amount of fat, sugar, water, andprotein that is needed for a baby's growth and development.[19] HP Pavilion dv7-1157cl CPU Fan
Because breastfeeding uses an average of 500 calories a day, it helps the mother lose weight after giving birth.[20] The composition of breast milk changes depending on how long the baby nurses at each session, as well as on the age of the child.
The quality of a mother's breast milk may be compromised by smoking, alcoholic beverages, caffeinated drinks, marijuana,methamphetamine, heroin, and methadone.[21] HP Pavilion dv6-3163eo CPU Fan
However, the American Academy of Pediatrics states that "Tobacco smoking by mothers is not a contraindication to breastfeeding."[17] In addition, the AAP states that while breastfeeding mothers "should avoid the use of alcoholic beverages," an "occasional celebratory single, small alcoholic drink is acceptable, but breastfeeding should be avoided for 2 hours after the drink." HP Pavilion dv9740us CPU Fan
Scientific research, such as the studies summarized in a 2007 review for the U.S. Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality(AHRQ)[22] and a 2007 review for the WHO,[23] have found numerous benefits of breastfeeding for the infant. According to theAmerican Academy of Pediatrics, research shows that breast feeding provides advantages with regard to general health, growth, and development. ACER Aspire 4743 CPU Fan
Not breastfeeding significantly increases risk for a large number of acute and chronic diseases including lower respiratory infection, ear infections, bacteremia, bacterial meningitis, botulism, urinary tract infection, and necrotizing enterocolitis.They state that there are a number of studies that show a possible protective effect of breast milk feeding against sudden infant death syndrome, HP Pavilion dv6-2170us CPU Fan
insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus, Crohn's disease, ulcerative colitis,lymphoma, allergic diseases, digestive diseases, and a possible enhancement of cognitive development.
During breastfeeding, approximately 0.25-0.5 grams per day of secretory IgA antibodies pass to the baby via the milk.[25][26]This is one of the most important features of colostrum, Toshiba Satellite L675-S7018 CPU Fan
the breast milk created for newborns.[27] The main target for these antibodies are probably microorganisms in the baby's intestine. There is some uptake of IgA to the rest of the body,[28] but this amount is relatively small.[29] Also, breast milk contains several anti-infective factors such as bile salt stimulated lipase (protecting against amoebic infections) and lactoferrin (which binds to iron and inhibits the growth of intestinal bacteria). ASUS F80Q CPU Fan
Among the studies showing that non-breastfed infants have a higher risk of infection than breastfed infants are:
In a 1993 University of Texas Medical Branch study, a longer period of breastfeeding was associated with a shorter duration of some middle ear infections (otitis media with effusion) in the first two years of life.[32] ACER TravelMate 4200 CPU Fan
A 1995 study of 87 infants found that breastfed babies had half the incidence of diarrheal illness, 19% fewer cases of any otitis media (middle ear) infections, and 80% fewer prolonged cases of middle ear infections than formula fed babies in the first twelve months of life.[33]
Breastfeeding appeared to reduce symptoms of upper respiratory tract infections in premature infants up to seven months after release from hospital in a 2002 study of 39 infants.[34] HP 434678-001 CPU Fan
A 2004 case-control study found that breastfeeding reduced the risk of acquiring urinary tract infections in infants up to seven months of age, with the protection strongest immediately after birth.The 2007 review for AHRQ found that breastfeeding reduced the risk of acute otitis media, non-specific gastroenteritis, and severe lower respiratory tract infections. HP G70-120EA CPU Fan
In a review article published in the journal Pediatrics, data from 2001 to 2012 were analyzed to discern any safety issue for mothers being vaccinated while breastfeeding. The American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) concludes that it is safe for women to receive almost all vaccines while nursing their infants. Toshiba Satellite A300-034 CPU Fan
The study further found that the protected immunity of the mother obtained by vaccination against tetanus, diphtheria, whooping cough and influenza can pass on to the baby, and that breastfeeding can reduce fever rate after infant immunization. Exceptions are smallpox and yellow fever vaccines which increase the risk of infants developing vaccinia and encephalitis. HP 606609-001 CPU Fan
In all other cases AAP recommends women continue breastfeeding after vaccination.
Formula fed babies have worse arousal from sleep at 2–3 months. This coincides with the peak incidence of sudden infant death syndrome.A study conducted at the University of Münster found that formula feeding doubled the risk of sudden infant death syndrome in children up to the age of 1. Compaq Presario CQ60-301sl CPU Fan
Infants exclusively breastfed have less chance of developing diabetes mellitus type 1 than those with a shorter duration of breastfeeding and an earlier exposure to cow milk and solid foods.Breastfeeding also appears to protect against diabetes mellitus type 2, at least in part due to its effects on the child's weight. TOSHIBA Satellite L300 CPU Fan
Breastfeeding for more than 6 months is an independent predictor of better mental health through childhood and adolescence according to a large 2009 study.[12]The more months children were breastfed the less likely they were to suffer from depression, delinquent behavior, attention issues and other psychological problems.[12] Breastfeeding also improves cognitive development according to a number of other studies. ASUS Eee PC 701 CPU Fan
The beneficial effects seem to stem in large part from the unique composition of human milk which, compared to formula milk, has been shown to lead to improved motor and cognitive development in pre-term babies as well.
Breastfeeding appears to reduce the risk of extreme obesity in children. Compaq Presario CQ60-305sa CPU Fan
The protective effect of breastfeeding against obesity is consistent, though small, across many studies, and appears to increase with the duration of breastfeeding.
A study has also shown that infants who are bottle-fed in early infancy are more likely to empty the bottle or cup in late infancy than those who are breastfed. HP 637607-001 CPU Fan
"Bottle-feeding, regardless of the type of milk, is distinct from feeding at the breast in its effect on infants' self-regulation of milk intake." According to the study, this may be due to one of three possible factors, including that when bottle feeding, parents may encourage an infant to finish the contents of the bottle whereas when breastfeeding, an infant naturally develops self-regulation of milk intake.[ HP Pavilion dv7-3067nr CPU Fan
A study in Today's Pediatrics associates solid food given too early to Formula-fed babies before 4 months old will make them 6 times as likely to become obese by age 3. It does not happen if the babies were given solid foods with breast feeding.
In children who are at risk for developing allergic diseases (defined as at least one parent or sibling having atopy), HP Pavilion dv5-1210ez CPU Fan
atopic syndrome can be prevented or delayed through exclusive breastfeeding for four months, though these benefits may not be present after four months of age.[48] However, the key factor may be the age at which non-breastmilk is introduced rather than duration of breastfeeding.[ Compaq Presario CQ50-211nr CPU Fan
Atopic dermatitis, the most common form of eczema, can be reduced through exclusive breastfeeding beyond 12 weeks in individuals with a family history of atopy, but when breastfeeding beyond 12 weeks is combined with other foods incidents of eczema rise irrespective of family history. HP G56-114SA CPU Fan
Necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC) is an acute inflammatory disease in the intestines of infants. Necrosis or death of intestinal tissue may follow. It is mainly found in premature births. In one study of 926 preterm infants, NEC developed in 51 infants (5.5%). The death rate from necrotizing enterocolitis was 26%. SONY Vaio VGN-CR21Z/N CPU Fan
NEC was found to be six to ten times more common in infants fed formula exclusively, and three times more common in infants fed a mixture of breast milk and formula, compared with exclusive breastfeeding. In infants born at more than 30 weeks, NEC was twenty times more common in infants fed exclusively on formula.[ HP Pavilion dv7-4060eo CPU Fan
A 2007 meta-analysis of four randomized controlled trials found "a marginally statistically significant association" between breastfeeding and a reduction in the risk of NEC.
Although one study showed no evidence that breastfeeding offers protection against allergies, another study showed a positive correlation between breastfeeding and a lower risk of asthma. Toshiba Satellite M70-252 CPU Fan
This study also showed that breastfeeding protects against allergies, and respiratory and intestinal infections.A review of the association between breastfeeding and celiac disease (CD) concluded that breast feeding while introducing gluten to the diet reduced the risk of CD. The study was unable to determine if breastfeeding merely delayed symptoms or offered lifelong protection.[ Toshiba Satellite A100-455 CPU Fan
According to the findings of a study conducted at the University of Wisconsin, women who were breastfed as infants may have a lower risk of developing breast cancer than those who were not breastfed.Breastfeeding may decrease the risk of cardiovascular disease in later life, as indicated by lower cholesterol and C-reactive protein levels in adult women who had been breastfed as infants. HP Pavilion dv5-2112br CPU Fan
Although a 2001 study suggested that adults who had been breastfed as infants had lower arterial distensibility than adults who had not been breastfed as infants,[56] the 2007 review for the WHO concluded that breastfed infants "experienced lower mean blood pressure" later in life.[ DELL BFB0505HA CPU Fan
A 2007 review for the AHRQ found that "there is an association between a history of breastfeeding during infancy and a small reduction in adult blood pressure, but the clinical or public health implication of this finding is unclear".[22] A 2006 study found that breastfed babies are better able to cope with stress later in life.[57] HP Pavilion dv6-3299en CPU Fan
In a paper selected by UNICEF as the “Breastfeeding Paper of the Month” it was suggested that breastfed babies have a better chance of good dental health than artificially fed infants because of the effects of breastfeeding on the development of the oral cavity and airway. It was thought that with fewer malocclusions, breastfed children may have a reduced need for orthodontic intervention. SONY Vaio VGN-NW11Z/T CPU Fan
The report also suggested that children with the proper development of a well rounded, "U-shaped" dental arch, which is found more commonly in breastfed children, may have fewer problems with snoring and sleep apnea in later life.
Studies have examined whether breastfeeding in infants is associated with higher intelligence later in life. Toshiba Satellite L550-20W CPU Fan
Possible association between breastfeeding and intelligence is not clear. The 2007 review for the AHRQ found "no relationship between breastfeeding in term infants and cognitive performance"[22] and in 2006, a prospective cohort study, sibling pairs analysis, and meta-analysis, concluded that "Breast feeding has little or no effect on intelligence in children."[5HP Pavilion dv7-4183sf CPU Fan
The researchers found that "Most of the observed association between breast feeding and cognitive development is the result of confounding by maternal intelligence."[59]
However a 2007 review for the World Health Organization "suggests that breastfeeding is associated with increased cognitive development in childhood." HP Pavilion dv7-3190ev CPU Fan
The review also states that "The issue remains of whether the association is related to the properties of breastmilk itself, or whether breastfeeding enhances the bonding between mother and child, and thus contributes to intellectual development."A 2005 study using data on 2,734 sibling pairs from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health "provide[d] persuasive evidence of a causal connection between breastfeeding and intelligence."HP KSB06105HA CPU Fan
In another study, cited as "the largest randomized trial ever conducted in the area of human lactation," between 1996 and 1997 maternity hospitals and polyclinics in Belarus were randomized to receive or not receive breastfeeding promotion modeled on the Baby Friendly Hospital Initiative.[61] HP G62-244CA CPU Fan
Of 13,889 infants born at these hospitals and polyclinics and followed up in 2002–2005, those who had been born in hospitals and polyclinics receiving breastfeeding promotion had IQs that were 2.9–7.5 points higher (which was significantly higher).[61] Since (among other reasons) a randomized trial should control for maternal IQ, HP Pavilion dv7-3190ei CPU Fan
the authors concluded in a 2008 paper that the data "provide strong evidence that prolonged and exclusive breastfeeding improves children's cognitive development."[61] Further research in 2013 has supported this theory.[62] One 2013 imaging study indicated that breastfed children experience 15-34% enhanced brain white matter development. HP G62-244CA CPU Fan
In 2007, A. Caspi et al. published a study “Moderation of breastfeeding effects on the IQ by genetic variation in fatty acid metabolism.” The authors noted that there is currently agreement in the scientific community that both genetic and environmental factors effect specific traits rather than one or another. ASUS A6000R CPU Fan
This fact inspired them to try to find a gene that mediates the well-researched phenomenon that children who are breast-fed have higher IQ. In their study they found that babies with a specific version of the FADS2 gene demonstrated an IQ averaging 7 points higher if breastfed, compared with babies with a less common version of the gene who showed no improvement when breastfed.[ HP Pavilion dv7-6011sg CPU Fan
FADS2 affects the metabolism of polyunsaturated fatty acids found in human breast milk, such asdocosahexaenoic acid and arachidonic acid, which are known to be linked to early brain development.[64] The researchers said "Our findings support the idea that the nutritional content of breast milk accounts for the differences seen in human IQ. Toshiba Satellite L300D-01P CPU Fan
But it's not a simple all-or-none connection: it depends to some extent on the genetic makeup of each infant"[65] and, "further investigation to replicate and explain this specific gene–environment interaction is warranted."[64]
However, an attempt to replicate this study in 5934 eight-year-old children failed: Compaq Presario CQ60-409CA CPU Fan
No relationship of the common C allele to negative effects of formula feeding was apparent, and contra to the original report, the rare GG homozygote children performed worse when formula fed than other children on formula milk. Another study of over 700 families also criticized the Caspi et al. study. HP Mini 110-3010sf CPU Fan
The study reported no evidence for either main or moderating effects of the original SNP (rs174575), nor of two additional FADS2 polymorphisms (rs1535 and rs174583), nor any effect of maternal FADS2 status on offspring IQ.
Breastfeeding is a cost-effective way of feeding an infant, providing nourishment for a child at a small cost to the mother. Toshiba Satellite L645D-S4056 CPU Fan
Frequent and exclusive breastfeeding usually delays the return of fertility through lactational amenorrhea, though breastfeeding is an imperfect means of birth control. During breastfeeding beneficial hormonesare released into the mother's body[26] and the maternal bond can be strengthened.[ Toshiba Satellite M70-142 CPU Fan
Breastfeeding is possible throughout pregnancy, but generally milk production will be reduced at some point.[69] Children who are not breastfed are almost six times more likely to die by the age of one month than children who receive at least some breastmilk.
According to some authorities, there is a growing body of evidence that suggests that early skin-to-skin contact DELL Inspiron E1505 CPU Fan
(also called kangaroo care) of mother and baby stimulates breast feeding behavior in the baby.[71] Newborn infants who are immediately placed on their mother’s skin have a natural instinct to latch on to the breast and start nursing, typically within one hour of being born. HP 532613-001 CPU Fan
It is thought that immediate skin-to-skin contact provides a form of imprinting that makes subsequent feeding significantly easier. The World Health Organization reports that in addition to more successful breastfeeding, skin-to-skin contact between a mother and her newborn baby immediately after delivery also reduces crying, HP Envy 14-1080eo CPU Fan
improves mother to infant interaction, and keeps baby warm. According to studies quoted by UNICEF, babies have been observed to naturally follow a unique process which leads to a first breastfeed. After birth, babies who are placed skin to skin on their mothers chest will:
Initially babies cry briefly – a very distinctive birth cry. ACER TravelMate 5230 CPU Fan
Then they will enter a stage of relaxation, recovering from the birth
Then the baby will start to wake up
Then begin to move, initially little movements, perhaps of the arms, shoulders and head
As these movements increase he will actually start to crawl towards the breast
Once he has found the breast and therefore his food source, he will tend to rest for a little while. Lenovo 3000 G430 CPU Fan
Often this can be mistaken as the baby is not hungry or wanting to feed
However after his rest he will start to familiarise himself with the breast, perhaps by nuzzling, smelling and licking before he finally attaches
Once he has suckled for a period of time, he will come off the breast and fall asleep. ASUS EEE PC 1215N CPU Fan
Providing that there are no interruptions, all babies are said to follow this process and it is suggested that trying to rush the process or interruptions such as removing the baby to weigh him/her is counter-productive and may lead to problems at subsequent breastfeeds.[72]
Hormones released during breastfeeding help to strengthen the maternal bond.[19] Dell Vostro 3750 CPU Fan
Teaching partners how to manage common difficulties is associated with higher breastfeeding rates.[73] Support for a mother while breastfeeding can assist in familial bonds and help build a paternal bond between father and child.[74]
If the mother is away, an alternative caregiver may be able to feed the baby with breast milk expressed with a breast pump. Toshiba Satellite L500-018 CPU Fan
Breastfeeding releases oxytocin and prolactin, hormones that relax the mother and make her feel more nurturing toward her baby.[75] This hormone release can help to enable sleep even where a mother may otherwise be having difficulty sleeping. Breastfeeding soon after giving birth increases the mother's oxytocin levels, making her uterus contract more quickly and reducing bleeding. COMPAQ Presario CQ42-116TU CPU Fan
Pitocin, a synthetic hormone used to make the uterus contract during and after labour, is structurally modelled on oxytocin. Syntocinon, another synthetic oxytocic, is commonly used in Australia and the UK rather than Pitocin.
As the fat accumulated during pregnancy is used to produce milk, extended breastfeeding—at least 6 months—can help mothers lose weight.[ HP Pavilion dv6-2115eg CPU Fan
However, weight loss is highly variable among lactating women; monitoring the diet and increasing the amount/intensity of exercise are more reliable ways of losing weight.[80] The 2007 review for the AHRQ found "The effect of breastfeeding in mothers on return-to-pre-pregnancy weight was negligible, and the effect of breastfeeding on postpartum weight loss was unclear." Toshiba Satellite L645D-S4056 CPU Fan
Dramatic changes occur in a pregnant woman’s metabolism and body composition as she accommodates the demands of providing for the nutritional needs of the growing fetus, and metabolizing for two. In anticipation of lactation, the mother accumulates some stores of visceral fat, but most of it is stored as subcutaneous fat in the thighs, arms, buttocks, and breasts.[ HP 646578-001 CPU Fan
This shift in fat content leads to increased insulin production, insulin resistance, and circulating lipid levels in the mother. Studies have indicated that gestational weight gain (GWG) may contribute to complications during labor and delivery and it is the most reliable factor in predicting postpartum weight retention (PPWR).[82] SONY VAIO PCG-6L2L CPU Fan
In general, the more weight that women put on during pregnancy, the more weight that they retain afterward. Interventions to restrain GWG in the United States and elsewhere have had mixed results in reducing PPWR.[83] The recent recognition of PPWR’s influence on later chronic diseases has brought a surge in data analysis. Toshiba Satellite X205-S9349 CPU Fan
In fact, the proportion of US women who gain weight excessively during pregnancy is growing. In 2005, 20.6% gained 18.2 kg (40 lb), the upper limit recommended by the Institute of Medicine.[84] Recommended weight gains during pregnancy vary according to maternal baseline characteristics. DELL yy529 CPU Fan
The Institute of Medicine has established guidelines where women who are underweight (BMI less than 18.5) are encouraged to gain 13 to 18 kg; women who are at normal weight (BMI 18.5-24.9) are encouraged to gain 11–16 kg; those who are overweight (BMI 25-29.9) are suggested to gain 7–11 kg; HP Pavilion dv7-3020es CPU Fan
and those who are obese I (BMI 30-34.9) are recommended to gain 5–9 kg.[85] These recommendations are variable and are meant to inform an obstetrician in caring for a pregnant woman. Extreme gains in visceral fat can put women at higher risk of cardiovascular and glycemic disorders later in life. HP G62-369TX CPU Fan
After birth, the fat stores created during pregnancy are primed to be metabolized through lactation. Several investigators have explored the relation between duration of lactation and postpartum weight change, and found a variety of outcomes. Overall, it has been observed that prolonged exclusivity of breastfeeding is associated HP 13.V1.BJ195.F.GN CPU Fan
with increased weight loss when controlling for gestational weight gain and postpartum caloric intake and expenditure.[86] Dietary intake and energy expenditure affect how much weight women lose with lactation. When nutrition is readily available, women compensate for increased energy demands by increasing intake and decreasing energy expenditure, Toshiba Satellite L675D-S7016 CPU Fan
rather than mobilizing fat stores. Fat mobilization appears to increase after the first 3 months postpartum, reflecting changes in the hormonal effects of lactation on maternal appetite as frequency of infant feeds decreases.[87] Some findings suggest that formula-feeding mothers during the first two months postpartum consume 600 to 800 fewer calories than breast-feeding mothers and lost substantially more weight. HP Pavilion dv7-1451nr CPU Fan
From 3 to 6 months post-partum, however, weight loss among breast-feeding women increased substantially. These results suggest that in the early postpartum period, well-nourished women in developed nations tend to increase energy intake and/or decrease physical activity to meet the energy demands of lactation, whereas beyond 3 months, HP G62-a57SG CPU Fan
lactating women are more likely to mobilize fat stores. Longitudinal studies using skinfold thickness and MRI scanning of adipose tissue during pregnancy and lactation consistently show fat accumulation in the thigh and buttocks regions during pregnancy, with mobilization from these areas postpartum. SONY Vaio VGN-NR31S/S CPU Fan
These studies have indicated that lactation is associated with reduction in subcutaneous fat levels and overall body weight.
Recent data suggests that lactation is associated with a reduced risk in chronic diseases such as type-2 diabetes and heart disease.[ IBM 91P9252 CPU Fan
The long-term effects of lactation on body composition vary, and seem to be influenced by socioeconomic factors.[92] Studies have consistently indicated that lactation helps prepare the mother’s body for subsequent pregnancies and reduces complications in later periods of gestation and birth. Toshiba Satellite M70-122 CPU Fan
Further research is needed to examine the long-term effects of lactation on maternal body composition and risk for chronic disease.
Breastfeeding may delay the return to fertility for some women by suppressing ovulation. A breastfeeding woman may not ovulate, or have regular periods, during the entire lactation period. SONY UDQFWPH22FQU CPU Fan
The period in which ovulation is absent differs for each woman. This lactational amenorrhea has been used as an imperfect form of natural contraception, with greater than 98% effectiveness during the first six months after birth if specific nursing behaviors are followed. It is possible for women to ovulate within two months after birth while fully breastfeeding and get pregnant again. HP Pavilion dv6-2150ei CPU Fan
The American Academy of Pediatrics states that breast feeding also has economic health benefits because breastfeeding results in reduced health care costs. The significantly lower incidence of illness in the breastfed infant also allows the parents more time for attention to siblings and other family duties and reduces parental absence from work and lost income. HP G42-367TU CPU Fan
Using figures for the year 1993, it was estimated that the cost of purchasing infant formula for the first year after birth was $855. During the first 6 weeks of lactation, maternal caloric intake is no greater for the breastfeeding mother than for the nonlactating mother. After that period, food and fluid intakes are greater, Toshiba Satellite P100-238 CPU Fan
but the cost of the increased caloric intake is about half the cost of purchasing formula, resulting in a saving of about $400.There are many books and videos to advise mothers about breastfeeding. Lactation consultants in hospitals or private practice, and volunteer organizations of breastfeeding mothers such as La Leche League International also provide advice and support. ACER Aspire 5739 CPU Fan
In the half hour after birth, the baby's suckling reflex is strongest, and the baby is more alert, so it is the ideal time to start breastfeeding.[105] Breastfeeding also releases hormones that contract the uterus to reduce post-partum bleeding.[106]Early breastfeeding is associated with fewer nighttime feeding problems.[107] IBM ThinkPad T40 2678 CPU Fan
A Cochrane review found that early skin-to-skin contact between mother and baby (placing the baby at the mother's breast before dressing the baby) reduces crying, improves mother-baby interaction, keeps the baby warmer, and helps women breastfeed successfully and for a longer period of time. IBM Thinkpad T43 CPU Fan
Feeding a baby "on demand" (sometimes referred to as "on cue"), means feeding when the baby shows signs of hunger. Newborn babies usually express demand for feeding every 1 to 3 hours per 24 hours (resulting in 8-12 times in 24 hours) for the first two to four weeks.
"Experienced breastfeeding mothers learn that the sucking patterns and needs of babies vary. IBM ThinkPad T43 2668 CPU Fan
While some infants' sucking needs are met primarily during feedings, other babies may need additional sucking at the breast soon after a feeding even though they are not really hungry. Babies may also nurse when they are lonely, frightened or in pain."[110]
"Comforting and meeting sucking needs at the breast is nature's original design. IBM ThinkPad T43 1871 CPU Fan
Pacifiers (dummies, soothers) are a substitute for the mother when she cannot be available. Other reasons to pacify a baby primarily at the breast include superior oral-facial development, prolonged lactational amenorrhea, avoidance of nipple confusion, and stimulation of an adequate milk supply to ensure higher rates of breastfeeding success." ACER Travelmate 8104WLMI CPU Fan
Most US states now have laws that allow a mother to breastfeed her baby anywhere she is allowed to be. In hospitals, rooming-in care permits the baby to stay with the mother and improves the ease of breastfeeding. Some commercial establishments provide breastfeeding rooms, although laws generally specify that mothers may breastfeed anywhere, without requiring them to go to a special area. DELL Latitude E4300 CPU Fan
Correct positioning and technique for latching on are necessary to prevent nipple soreness and allow the baby to obtain enough milk.The "rooting reflex" is the baby's natural tendency to turn towards the breast with the mouth open wide; mothers sometimes make use of this by gently stroking the baby's cheek or lips with their nipple to induce the baby to move into position for a breastfeeding session, ASUS F80S CPU Fan
then quickly moving the baby onto the breast while its mouth is wide open.To prevent nipple soreness and allow the baby to get enough milk, a large part of the breast and areola need to enter the baby's mouth.Failure to latch on is one of the main reasons for ineffective feeding and can lead to infant health concerns. HP Pavilion dv5-1058eo CPU Fan
A 2006 study found that inadequate parental education, incorrect breastfeeding techniques, or both were associated with higher rates of preventable hospital re-admissions of newborns.
Exclusive breastfeeding is defined as "an infant's consumption of human milk with no supplementation of any type IBM 13N5182 CPU Fan
(no water, no juice, no nonhuman milk, and no foods) except for vitamins, minerals, and medications."[17] National and international guidelines recommend that all infants be breastfed exclusively for the first six months of life. Breastfeeding may continue with the addition of appropriate foods, for two years or more. IBM Thinkpad T30 2366-AA3 CPU Fan
Exclusive breastfeeding has dramatically reduced infant deaths in developing countries by reducing diarrhea and infectious diseases. It has also been shown to reduce HIV transmission from mother to child, compared to mixed feeding.
While it can be hard to measure how much food a breastfed baby consumes, babies normally feed to meet their own requirements.[ IBM Thinkpad T30 CPU Fan
Babies that fail to eat enough may exhibit symptoms of failure to thrive.
The La Leche League says that their most often asked question is, "How can I tell if my baby is getting enough milk?" They advise that for the first few days while the baby is receiving mostly colostrum only one or two wet diapers per day is normal. HP 535438-001 CPU Fan
Once the mother's milk comes in, usually on the third or fourth day, the baby should begin to have 6-8 wet cloth diapers (5-6 wet disposable diapers) per day. In addition, most young babies will have at least two to five bowel movements every 24 hours for the first several months. DELL Inspiron N3010 CPU Fan
When direct breastfeeding is not possible, a mother can express (artificially remove and store) her milk. With manual massage or by using a breast pump, a woman can express her milk and store it. It can be stored in freezer storage bags and containers made specifically for breastmilk, a supplemental nursing system, or a bottle ready for use. HP Pavilion dv6-3070tx CPU Fan
Breast milk may be kept at room temperature for up to six hours, refrigerated for up to eight days or frozen for up to six to twelve months.[123] Research suggests that the antioxidant activity in expressed breast milk decreases over time but it still remains at higher levels than in infant formula.[124] IBM 41W5269 CPU Fan
Expressing breast milk can maintain a mother's milk supply when she and her child are apart. If a sick baby is unable to feed, expressed milk can be fed through a nasogastric tube.
Expressed milk can also be used when a mother is having trouble breastfeeding.
"Exclusively expressing", "exclusively pumping", ASUS A8H CPU Fan
and "EPing" are terms for a mother who feeds her baby exclusively her breastmilk while not physically breastfeeding. This may arise because her baby is unable or unwilling to latch on to the breast. With good pumping habits, particularly in the first 12 weeks when the milk supply is being established, SONY UDQFRZH13CF0 CPU Fan
it is possible to produce enough milk to feed the baby for as long as the mother wishes.
It is generally advised to delay using a bottle to feed expressed breast milk until the baby is 4–6 weeks old and is good at sucking directly from the breast.[125] As sucking from a bottle takes less effort, babies can lose their desire to suck from the breast. HP COMPAQ 2510P CPU Fan
This is called nursing strike or nipple confusion. To avoid this when feeding expressed breast milk (EBM) before 4–6 weeks of age, it is recommended that breast milk be given by other means such as feeding spoons or feeding cups. Also, EBM should be given by someone other than the breastfeeding mother (or wet nurse), APPLE 661-4951 CPU Fan
so that the baby can learn to associate direct feeding with the mother (or wet nurse) and associate bottle feeding with other people.
With the improvements in breast pumps, many women are able to return to work while exclusively feeding their infants breast milk because of their ability to express milk at work. HP Pavilion dv6-3034ca CPU Fan
Women can also leave their infants in the care of others for vacation or other extended trips, while maintaining a supply of breast milk. This can be very convenient to the mother.[126]
Some women donate their expressed breast milk (EBM) to others, either directly or through a milk bank. HP G56-126NR CPU Fan
Though historically the use of wet nurses was common, some women dislike the idea of feeding their own child with another woman's milk; others appreciate being able to give their baby the benefits of breast milk. Feeding expressed breast milk—either from donors or the baby's own mother—is the feeding method of choice for premature babies. Compaq Presario C556CA CPU Fan
| Extensive research using improved epidemiologic methods and modern laboratory techniques documents diverse and compelling advantages for infants, mothers, families, and society from breastfeeding and use of human milk for infant feeding. HP Pavilion dv7-1157cl CPU FanThese advantages include health, nutritional, immunologic, developmental, psychologic, social, economic, and environmental benefits.[17] | ” |
Sunday, November 24, 2013
In 1931, the Transport Licensing Act was passed
In 1931, the Transport Licensing Act was passed, protecting the railways from competition for fifty years. The transport industry became fully deregulated in 1983.Between 1982 and 1993 the rail industry underwent a major overhaul involving corporatisation, restructuring, downsizing, line and station closures and privatisation. In 1993 the network was privatised, and until 2003 the national network was owned byTranz Rail, previously New Zealand Rail Limited. ASUS EEE PC 1201NL CPU Fan
The Government agreed to take over control of the national rail network back when Toll Holdings purchased Tranz Rail in 2003. In May 2008 the Government agreed to buy Toll NZ's rail and ferry operations for $665 million,[27] and renamed the operating company KiwiRail.
Bulk freights dominate services, particularly coal, logs and wood products, milk and milk products, fertiliser, SONY Vaio VGN-NW240D/T CPU Fan
containers, steel and cars. Long distance passenger services are limited to three routes – the TranzAlpine (Christchurch – Greymouth), the TranzCoastal (Christchurch – Picton) and the Northern Explorer (Wellington – Auckland). Urban rail services operate in Wellington and Auckland, and interurban services run betweenPalmerston North and Wellington (the Capital Connection) and Masterton and Wellington (the Wairarapa Connection). Compaq Presario CQ60-418DX CPU Fan
For most of its history, New Zealand's rail services were operated by the Railways Department. In 1982, the Department was corporatised as the New Zealand Railways Corporation. The Corporation was split in 1990 between a limited liability operating company, New Zealand Rail Limited, and the Corporation which retained a number of assets to be disposed. New Zealand Rail was privatised in 1993, and renamed Tranz Rail in 1995. SONY Vaio VGN-NW240D CPU Fan
In 2001, Tranz Rail's long-distance passenger operations, under the guise of Tranz Scenic, became a separate company; Tranz Rail chose not to bid for the contract to run Auckland's rail services, and the contract was won by Connex (now Veolia Transport Auckland). Proposals to sell Tranz Rail's Wellington passenger rail services, Tranz Metro, did not come to fruition, although the division became a separate company in July 2003. SONY VGN-BX197XP CPU Fan
In 2003 Tranz Rail was purchased by Australian freight firm Toll Holdings, which renamed the company Toll NZ.
The only other significant non-heritage operator is the tourist oriented Taieri Gorge Railway in Otago, which runs regular passenger trains on part of the former Otago Central Railway and some on the Main South Line.
New Zealand has a long history of international and coastal shipping. Toshiba Satellite L645D-S4056 CPU Fan
Both Maori and the New Zealand European settlers arrived from overseas, and during the early European settler years, coastal shipping was one of the main methods of transportation,[28] while it was hard to move goods to or from the hinterlands, thus limiting the locations of early settlement.[2]
The two main islands are separated by Cook Strait, 24 km wide at its narrowest point, but requiring a 70-km ferry trip to cross.Toshiba AB7805HX-GB3 CPU Fan
This is the only large-scale long-distance car / passenger shipping service left, with all others restricted to short ferry routes to islands like Stewart Island/Rakiura or Great Barrier Island.
New Zealand has 1,609 km of navigable inland waterways; however these are no longer significant transport routes.
Historically, international shipping to and from New Zealand started out with the first explorer-traders, Toshiba Satellite L500-208 CPU Fan
with New Zealand waters soon becoming a favourite goal for whalers as well as merchants trading with the Maori and beginning European colonies.
In the 19th century, one of the most important changes for New Zealand shipping – and for New Zealand itself – came with the introduction of refrigerated ships, which allowed New Zealand to export meat to overseas, primarily to the United Kingdom. HP 535441-001 CPU Fan
This led to a booming agricultural industry which was suddenly offered a way to ship their goods to markets around the world.Larger, deeper-draught ships from the middle of the 19th century made dredges a common sight in shipping channels around New Zealand, and tugboats were also often bought to assist them to the quays, where electric or hydraulic cranes were increasingly used for on- and off-loading. Toshiba Satellite P100-444 CPU Fan
However, manpower was still needed in large amounts, and waterfronts were the hotbeds of the industrial actions of the early 20th century.[29]In the 1970s, containerisation revolutionised shipping, eventually coming to New Zealand as well. The local harbour boards wrought massive changes on those ports selected (after much political wrangling) to handle the new giant vessels, such as Lyttelton and Auckland Port. HP Pavilion dv7-3114eo CPU Fan
Gantry cranes, straddle carriers and powerful tugboats were built or purchased, and shipping channels dredged deeper, while large areas of land were reclaimed to enable the new container terminals. The changes have been described as having been more radical than the changeover from sail to steam a century before.[30]
However, containerisation made many of the smaller ports suffer, this being only later recovered somewhat with newer, HP Mini 110-1125SA CPU Fan
smaller multi-purpose ships that could travel to smaller ports, and the loosening of the trade links with the United Kingdom, which diversified the trade routes. The time for river ports had gone however, and most of them disappeared, facing particular pressure from the new rail ferries,[29][30] In the 1980s, deregulation also involved and heavily changed the port industry, HP KSB06105HA CPU Fan
with harbour boards abolished, and replaced by more commercially-focussed companies. Many port jobs were lost, though shipping costs fell.
As noted above, coastal shipping has long played a significant role in New Zealand. It was very efficient for moving large amounts of goods, Compaq Presario CQ60-210eo CPU Fan
and relatively quick. In 1910, it was noted in a discussion with the Minister of Railways that a fruit grower at Port Albert (near Wellsford, less than 150 km from Auckland) had found it cheaper to ship his canned fruit to Lyttleton in the South Island by boat, and thence back to Auckland again, rather than pay rail freight rates from nearby Wellsford to Auckland.[31] HP Pavilion dv7-2250sf CPU Fan
The industry however also faced a number of troubled times as well, such as during World War II when ship requisitioning caused shortages in the transport operation.[32] While many ports reopened after the war, they (and coastal shipping in general) faced huge pressure from rail[29] (presumably now offering improved freight rates compared to the 1910 era). HP 434678-001 CPU Fan
After cabotage was abolished in 1994, international shipping lines became able to undertake coastal shipping as opportune to them on their international routes to New Zealand. While reducing the cargo reshipment rates for New Zealand industry, this is seen by some as a heavy blow for local competitors, who, specialised in coastal shipping only, HP G60-230us CPU Fan
are less able to achieve the costs savings of large lines – these can generally operate profitably even without cargo on New Zealand-internal legs of their routes, and are thus able to underbid others. The law change has been accused of having turned the New Zealand business into a 'sunset industry' which will eventually die out.[33]
In the financial year 2003 / 2004 coastal cargo in New Zealand totalled around 8.6 million tonnes, of which 85% was still carried by local, and 15% by overseas shipping.[34] HP Pavilion dv6365us CPU Fan
In 2009, the National Party announced that funding for coastal shipping and supporting infrastructure, part of the "Sea Change" plan of the previous Labour government, would be cut to a substantial degree. The move was heavily criticised, amongst others, by the Green Party,[35] and the Maritime Union of New Zealand.
Regular roll-on roll-off ferry services link the North and South Islands between Wellington and Picton, HP 535439-001 CPU Fan
since 1962.[18]Interisland Line, a division of KiwiRail, owns the main inter-island ferry service, the Interislander. Two of the three ferries used by the Interislander, Arahura and Aratere, are rail ferries with special rail decks. The largest and newest ferry, Kaitaki came into service in September 2005. A competitor service is operated by Strait Shipping Ltd, using the former French Santa Regina and the former Danish Straitsman, under the Bluebridge brand. COMPAQ 6910c CPU Fan
Depending on the vessel, usual transit time between the North and South Islands is between three hours and three hours twenty minutes. Faster catamaran ferries were used by Tranz Rail and its competitors. To reduce voyage times, Tranz Rail proposed to relocate the South Island terminal of its services to Clifford Bay in Marlborough, which would also avoid a steep section of railway. IBM Lenovo IdeaPad G510 CPU Fan
This proposal has been shelved since the takeover by Toll Holdings in 2003.
Smaller ferries operate in the Bay of Islands, Rawene (Northland), Auckland, Tauranga, Wellington, the Marlborough Sounds andLyttelton (Christchurch), and between Bluff and Halfmoon Bay (Stewart Island/Rakiura).
Passenger ferry service also operated for many years between Wellington and Lyttleton (the port closest to Christchurch). HP G62-110SO CPU Fan
This service was operated by the Union Steam Ship Company, and the passenger ferries typically operated an overnight service, although in later years the last of these vessels, the Rangatira, operated alternate nights in each direction plus a daylight sailing between Lyttleton up to Wellington on Saturdays (so as to get a balance of four sailings in each direction, each week). DELL Precision M6400 CPU Fan
One of these passenger ferries, the Wahine, was lost in a storm as it entered Wellington Harbour on 10 April 1968, with the loss of 51 passengers and crew. The final sailing of the Rangatira, which was custom built and entered service in 1972, was on 15 September 1976, after two money losing years (subsidised by the NZ government).
The economy of Oceania comprises more than 14 separate countries and their associated economies. SONY Vaio VPC-EB290X CPU Fan
On a total scale the region has approximately 34,700,201[1] inhabitants who are spread among 30,000 islands] in the South Pacific bordered between Asia and the Americas. This region has a diverse mix of economies from the highly developed and globally competitive financial market of Australia to the much less developed economies that belong to many of its island neighbours. HP Envy 17-1090eo CPU Fan
New Zealand is the only other 1st world nation in the region, although the economy of Australia is by far the largest and most dominant economy in the region and one of the largest in the world.
The smallest Pacific nations rely on trade with Australia, New Zealand and the United States for exporting goods and for accessing other products. Toshiba Satellite A210-1CF CPU Fan
Australia and New Zealand's trading arrangements are known as Closer Economic Relations. Australia and New Zealand, along with other countries, are members of Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) and the East Asia Summit (EAS), which may become trade blocs in the future particularly EAS.
The overwhelming majority of people living in the Pacific islands work in the service industry which includes tourism, education and financial services. Dell Vostro 3450 CPU Fan
Oceania's largest export markets include Japan, China, the United States and South Korea. The majority of people living in Australia and to a lesser extent, New Zealand work in mining, electrical and manufacturing sectors also.
Tourism has become a large source of income for many in the Pacific; tourists come from Australia, New Zealand, Japan, the United Kingdom and the USA. Toshiba Satellite A10-103 CPU Fan
Fijicurrently draws almost half a million tourists each year; more than a quarter from Australia. This contributes $1 billion or more since 1995 to Fiji's economy but the Government of Fiji islands underestimate these figures due to invisible economy inside tourism industry.
Agriculture and natural resources constitutes only 5% to 10% of Oceania's total jobs, but contributes substantially to export performance. Compaq Presario A900 CTO CPU Fan
The most populous two nations, Australia and New Zealand, are also the most developed and have majority service industries. This dilutes the data from the less developed Pacific Island nations who have major agricultural economies. Most of the Pacific countries (excluding Australia and New Zealand) the primary industry is agriculture. Many nations are still quintessentially agricultural; ACER Aspire 4736ZG CPU Fan
for example, 80% of the population of Vanuatu and 70% of the population of Fiji works in agriculture. The main produce from the pacific is copra or coconut, but timber, beef, palm oil, cocoa, sugar and ginger are also commonly grown across the tropics of thePacific. Fishing provides a major industry for many of the smaller nations in the Pacific, although many fishing areas are exploited by other larger countries, namely Japan. Toshiba Satellite A10-103 CPU Fan
Natural Resources, such as lead, zinc, nickel and gold, are mined in Australia and the Solomon Islands. Oceania's largest export markets include Japan, China, the United States, India, South Korea and the European Union.
\Oceania's most populous nations, Australia and New Zealand, are both highly developed nations and are large international aid donors. SONY MCF-519PAM05 CPU Fan
These two wealthy nations share the region with less developed nations which still rely on foreign aid for development. In the 2007/08 financial year Australia provided $3.155 billion worth of official development assistance, of which $2.731 billion will be managed by AusAID. Every week, each Australian puts in around $2.40 to pay for Australia's aid program, SONY Vaio VPC-EB290X CPU Fan
amounting to around 1% of the Australian Federal Government expenditure compared to the 42% spent on social security and welfare.New Zealand's electricity market is regulated by the Electricity Industry Participation Code administered by the Electricity Authority (NZ). The Authority was established in November 2010 to replace the Electricity Commission (NZ). HP Pavilion dv7-2043cl CPU Fan
Until 1987, New Zealand had a centrally run system of providers of generation, transmission, distribution, and retailing. Since then, a step-by-step process of industry reform has led to the separation of the monopoly elements from the contestable elements to create competitive markets in energy generation and electricity retailing, while imposing regulation on the natural monopolies of transmission and distribution.[1] HP Pavilion dv7-2130ev CPU Fan
Currently the market is split into the following areas: regulation, generation, administration and market clearing, transmission, distribution, metering and retailing.The wholesale market for electricity operates under the Electricity Industry Participation Code,[2] and is overseen by the market regulator, the Electricity Authority. Trade takes place at more than 200 pricing nodes across New Zealand.[3] HP 608772-001 CPU Fan
Generators can make offers to supply electricity at grid injection points, while retailers and some major industrial users make bids to withdraw "offtake" electricity at grid exit points. The market uses a locational marginal pricing auction which takes generators’ offers and retailers’ bids, and computes final prices and quantities at each node. The auction is held every half hour.Toshiba Satellite A100-194 CPU Fan
The Authority contracts out the services required to run the electricity market. The Reconciliation Manager, who reconciles all metered quantities, Pricing Manager, who determines the final prices at each node, and Clearing and Settlement Manager, who pays generators for their generation at the market clearing price and invoices all retailers for their offtake, HP Pavilion tx1205/ CT CPU Fan
are all contracted to New Zealand Exchange (the NZX), who acquired the previous service provider M-Co in June 2009.The owner of the national transmission grid is Transpower, a state-owned enterprise. Transpower is also the System Operator, responsible for ensuring real time electricity supply security and quality. HP Pavilion dv6640ep CPU Fan
Transpower is the market scheduler, predicting likely demand to help generators make bids, and the dispatcher, in charge of matching demand and supply in real time.[4]
Distribution of electricity from the grid exit points to the end consumers' premises is the responsibility of 28 distributors who have monopoly control of the lines services on their networks. Ownership of distributors, COMPAQ Presario CQ42-401TU CPU Fan
also known as lines companies, is through trust-owned companies and public companies. Some major industrial users are directly connected to the grid, such as New Zealand Steel and the Tiwai Point Aluminium Smelter.
As of October 2011, there are five major generators in New Zealand: Meridian Energy, Genesis Power, Mighty River Power, Contact Energy, and TrustPower. These five together produce about 95% of New Zealand's electricity. Toshiba Satellite A300D CPU Fan
The first two are state-owned enterprises; the others publicly traded companies. An important feature of the New Zealand market is that all the major generators also own retailing arms. The companies are thus commonly known as "gentailers". Retailers purchase electricity from the wholesale market, and on-sell it to consumers. Retailers currently active are: HP Pavilion dv8397ea CPU Fan
Bay of Plenty Electricity, Bosco Connect, Contact Energy, Energy Direct, Empower,Energy Online, Genesis Energy, Just Energy, King Country Energy, Mercury Energy, Meridian Energy, Nova Energy, Powershop,Simply Energy, Pulse Energy, Tiny Mighty Power and TrustPower.[5]
Most of the retailers are linked to generating companies or have common ownership. HP Pavilion dv9821ea CPU Fan
For example Empower is backed by Contact Energy, Powershop is owned by Meridian Energy, Bosco Connect is a brand owned by Mighty River Power, Energy Online is owned by Genesis Energy, Mercury Energy is owned by the generator Mighty River Power, and Nova Energy and Bay of Plenty Energy have common ownership.[6] Not all retailers supply to all locations, for instance Bosco Connect only supplies to Auckland inner-city apartments. HP COMPAQ TC4200 CPU Fan
Competition for retail customers varies across the country but since 1999, when full retail competition was introduced, customers have switched at a rate between 9% and 14% per annum.
Electricity is traded at a wholesale level in a spot market. The market operation is managed by several service providers under agreements with the Electricity Authority (NZ).[8] SONY Vaio VGN-NW228F CPU Fan
The physical operation of the market is managed by Transpower in its role as System Operator.
Generators submit offers (bids) through a Wholesale Information and Trading System (WITS). Each offer covers a future half-hour period (called a trading period) and is an offer to generate a specified quantity at that time in return for a nominated price. HP G62-b16ST CPU Fan
The System Operator (Transpower) uses a scheduling, pricing and dispatch (SPD) system to rank offers, submitted through WITS, in order of price, and selects the lowest-cost combination of offers (bids) to satisfy demand.The market pricing principle is known as bid-based security-constrained economic dispatch with nodal prices.The highest-priced bid offered by a generator required to meet demand for a given half-hour sets the spot price for that trading period. HP 580696-001 CPU Fan
Electricity spot prices can vary significantly across trading periods, reflecting factors such as changing demand (e.g. lower prices in summer when demand is subdued) and supply (e.g. higher prices when hydro lakes and inflows are below average). Spot prices can also vary significantly across locations, reflecting electrical losses and constraints on the transmission system (e.g. higher prices in locations further from generating stations). HP Pavilion dv6-3049tx CPU Fan
Trades take place at approximately 285 nodes (grid injection points and grid exit points) across New Zealand every half-hour. Generators make offers to supply electricity at 59 grid injection points (GIPs) at power stations, while retailers and major users make bids to buy electricity at 226 grid exit points (GXPs) on the national grid.
Final prices at each node, taking account of grid losses and constraints, are processed and confirmed the following day.[9] HP G42-380LA CPU Fan
All electricity generated is required to be traded through the central pool, with the exception of small generating stations of less than 10MW.[10] Bilateral and other hedge arrangements are possible, but function as separate financial contracts. Trading develops by bids (purchaser/demand) and offers (generator/supply) for 48 half hour periods for each pricing nodes on the national grid. Toshiba Qosmio G30-167 CPU Fan
Bids and offers start 36 hours before the actual real-time consumption or ‘trading period’. Up to 4 hours (pre-dispatch) before the ‘trading period’ starts a new ‘forecast price’ is calculated to guide participants in the market. From four hours to the start of the trading period every half hour a ‘dispatch price’ is calculated and communicated. HP Pavilion dv7-1157cl CPU Fan
Two hours before the start of the ‘trading period’ bids and offers can no longer be revised (with some exceptions) and the new prices reflect Transpower's adjustments in load forecasts and system availability.
During each half hour period Transpower publishes a new real-time price every five minutes, and a time-weighted 30-minute average price. Compaq Presario CQ40-408AX CPU Fan
The real-time prices are used by some large direct-connect consumers to adapt their demand. The above prices are however guidelines only as the ‘final prices’ are calculated ex-post (normally noon the following day, unless there are irregularities or disputes) using the offer prices as established two hours before the ‘trading period’ and volumes as established during the ‘trading period’. HP Mini 110-1110ET CPU Fan
Differences between forecast, dispatch, real-time and final prices can be significant.
Regulation of the electricity market started in a light-handed fashion but there has been an increasing trend towards more heavy-handed regulation. Light-handed regulation is based on the threat of regulation providing an incentive on companies with market power to exercise self-regulation. HP Pavilion dv7-1157cl CPU Fan
The normal regulatory legislation such as the Companies Act, Electricity Act, Resource Management Act 1991, Commerce Act 1986, and Fair Trading Act 1986 provide the framework for regulating normal commercial and environmental transactions.
The government has increased the extent of intervention through the Electricity Industry Reform Act 1998, HP Pavilion dv6-3163eo CPU Fan
which forced power companies to divest either their energy or their lines business, and the Electricity Amendment Act 2001. The latter led to another round of industry reform concentrating on achieving bettergovernance of the electricity market and tighter control of monopoly functions. The "threat of regulation" was extended to the production of a set of regulations that would be brought into effect if the industry's self-regulation did not meet the Government's criteria. HP Pavilion dv9740us CPU Fan
On 16 May 2003 the result of a referendum by industry participants and customer representatives on a proposed set of self-regulating rules was announced:Consumers voted 4.4% for the proposal Traders voted 66.2% for the proposal (traders = generating companies and retailers) Transporters voted 47.4% for the proposal (transporters = distributors and Transpower) HP COMPAQ NX9420 CPU Fan
As there was not a substantial majority of all classes in favour of the proposal it was not implemented.
The result put paid to the prospect of a multilateral agreement on the governance and operational arrangements for the electricity market. The New Zealand government invoked the regulations already prepared to meet this contingency. The "threat of regulation" had been insufficient to stave off regulation. HP Pavilion dv7-4150ec CPU Fan
On 2 July 2003 a draft set of Electricity Governance Regulations and Rules was issued on behalf of the Minister of Energy by the Electricity Commission Establishment Unit (ECEU). This set was for consultation purposes and after submissions were received and reviewed, a set of regulations and rules was recommended to the Governor-General. HP Pavilion dv5-1102tu CPU Fan
In September 2003 a revised set of draft rules and regulations was issued by the ECEU for submissions by the end of October. The set did not include proposed transmission regulations, which were still being drafted. Also in September the Minister of Energy announced the chair and members of the Electricity Commission. SONY VGN-SZ220 CPU Fan
Roy Hemmingway, whose most recent position was chairperson of the Oregon Public Utility Commission in the USA, took on the role as chairperson of the Commission.The final set of Electricity Governance Regulations and Rules (excluding rules for transmission) became effective on 1 March 2004. The final chapter of the Electricity Governance Rules, on transmission, was gazetted on 28 April to become effective on 28 May 2004. HP Pavilion dv7-6011tx CPU Fan
A Ministerial Review of Electricity Market Performance was initiated on 1 April 2009 and led by an independent Electricity Technical Advisory Group, appointed by the Minister for Energy and Resources, with assistance from officials from the Ministry of Economic Development.[11] There were 29 recommendations arising from the review. [12] HP Pavilion dv5-1040eb CPU Fan
One of the key recommendations approved by Cabinet was the transfer of ownership and operation of some power stations between Genesis Energy and Meridian Energyin order to increase retailer competition in both islands and to give Genesis a South Island generating base. It was decided that Genesis would receive the Tekapo A and Tekapo B hydroelectric power stations from Meridian, ASUS F3Jv CPU Fan
and Meridian would receive the Whirinaki Power Station from the government (although Meridian eventually declined to accept). The transfer of Tekapo A and B was completed on 1 June 2011. [13]
On 1 November 2010, the Electricity Authority commenced operations, taking over from the Electricity Commission.[14] IBM ThinkPad R50p 2887 CPU Fan
In April 2013, the Labour Party and the Green Party said if they were to win the 2014 election, they would introduce a single buyer for electricity, in order to cut retail costs.[15] The Government responded by calling it "economic vandalism", comparing it to the Soviet Union,[16] but Greens co-leader Russel Norman said it would boost the economy and create jobs.[17] SONY VGN-CS36GJ/R CPU Fan
By the following day, shares in privately owned power company Contact Energy had fallen by more than 10 percent. Toshiba Satellite A215-S4807 CPU Fan,Toshiba Satellite Pro M10-SP405 CPU Fan,HP Pavilion dv4-1120us CPU Fan
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