Union Of Myanmar

Burma , is a country in South Asia andSoutheast Asia. It is bordered by India, Bangladesh, China, Laos and Thailand. One-third of Burma's total perimeter of 1,930 kilometres (1,200 mi) forms an uninterrupted coastline along the Bay of Bengal and the Andaman Sea. Sony VAIO VPC CW2MFX/PU Battery At 676,578 km² (261,227 sq mi), it is the 40th largest country in the world and the second largest country in Southeast Asia. Burma is also the 24th most populous country in the world with over 60.28 million people.^[6] Burma is home to some of the early civilizations of Southeast Asia including the Pyu and the Mon.^[7] Sony VAIO VPC S11V9E/B Battery In the 9th century, the Burmans of the Kingdom of Nanzhao, entered the upper Irrawaddy valley and, following the establishment of the Pagan Empire in the 1050s, the Burmese language and culture slowly became dominant in the country. During this period, Theravada Buddhism gradually became the predominant religion of the country. Sony VAIO VPCB119GJ/B Battery The Pagan Empire fell due to the Mongol invasions (1277–1301), and several warring states emerged. In the second half of the 16th century, the country was reunified by the Taungoo Dynasty which for a brief period was the largest empire in the history of Southeast Asia.^[8] The early 19th century Konbaung Dynasty ruled over an area that included modern Burma as well as Manipur and Assam. Sony VAIO VPCB11AGJ Battery The country was colonized by Britain following threeAnglo-Burmese Wars (1824–1885). British rule brought social, economic, cultural and administrative changes to the once-feudal society. Since independence in 1948, the country has been in one of the longest running civil wars among the country's myriad ethnic groups that remains unresolved. Sony VAIO VPCB11AVJ Battery From 1962 to 2011, the country was under military rule. The military juntawas dissolved in 2011 following a general election in 2010 and a civilian government installed. Burma is a resource rich country. However, since the reformations of 1962, the Burmese economy has become one of the least developed in the world. Sony VAIO VPCB11V9E Battery Burma’s GDP stands at $42.953 billion and grows at an average rate of 2.9% annually – the lowest rate of economic growth in the Greater Mekong Subregion.^[9] Among others, the EU, United States and Canada have imposed economic sanctions on Burma.^[10] Burma's health care system is one of the worst in the world: The World Health Organization ranked Burma at 190th, the worst performing of all countries. Sony VAIO VPCB11X9E Battery The United Nations and several other organizations have reported consistent and systematic human rightsviolations in the country, including child labour, human trafficking and a lack of freedom of speech. Sony VAIO VPCCW18FJ/P Battery The country's official full name is the Republic of the Union of Myanmar , Pyidaunzu Thanmăda Myăma Nainngandaw, pronounced: [pjìdàʊɴzṵ θàɴməda̰ mjəmà nàɪɴŋàɴdɔ̀]). However, some countries have not recognized the name change and use the long form Union of Burma instead.^[11][12] Sony VAIO VPCCW18FJ/R Battery In English, the country is popularly known by its short names, either "Burma" or "Myanmar". Both of its short names are derived from the name of the majority Burmese Bamar ethnic group. "Myanmar" is considered to be the literary form of the name of the ethnic group, while "Burma" is derived from Bamar, the colloquial form of the name of the group. Sony VAIO VPCCW18FJ/W Battery Depending on the register used the pronunciation would be "Bama" (pronounced: [bəmà]), or "Myamah" (pronounced: [mjəmà]). The name "Burma" has been in use in English since the time of British colonial rule. In 1989, the military government officially changed the English translations of many colonial-era names; Sony VAIO VPCCW19FJ/W Battery among these changes was the alteration of the name of the country to "Myanmar". The renaming remains a contested issue.^[13] Many political and ethnic opposition groups, and countries continue to use "Burma" because they do not recognise the legitimacy of the ruling military government or its authority to rename the country.^[ Sony VAIO VPCCW1AFJ Battery "Burma" continues to be used in English by the governments of many countries, including the United States, Australia, Canada and the United Kingdom. The United Nations uses "Myanmar", as do the Association of Southeast Asian Nations, Germany,^[15] Norway,^[16] China, India and Japan.^[17] There are variations of "Myanmar" when translated to local languages. Sony VAIO VPCCW1AHJ Battery The Government of Brazil uses "Mianmar",^[18] for example. Archaeological evidence shows that the homo erectus had lived in the region now known as Burma as early as 750,000 years ago, and the homo sapiens about 11,000 BCE, in a Stone Age culture called the Anyathian, when plants and animals were first domesticated and polished stone tools appeared in Burma. Sony VAIO VPCCW1S1E Battery The Bronze Age arrived circa 1500 BCE when people in the region were turning copper into bronze, growing rice, and domesticating chickens and pigs; they were among the first people in the world to do so. The Iron Age arrived around 500 BCE when iron-working settlements had emerged in an area south of present-dayMandalay. Sony VAIO VPCCW1S1E/B Battery Evidence also shows rice growing settlements of large villages and small cities that traded with their surroundings as far as China between 500 BCE and 200 CE.^[21] Around the 2nd century BCE, the first known city-states emerged in central Burma. The city-states were founded as part of the southward migration by the Tibeto-Burman-speaking Pyu, Sony VAIO VPCCW1S1E/L Battery the earliest inhabitants of Burma of whom records are extant, from present-day Yunnan.^[22][23] The Pyu culture was heavily influenced by trade with India, importing Buddhism as well as other cultural, architectural and political concepts, which would have an enduring influence on later Burmese culture and political organization. Sony VAIO VPCCW1S1E/P Battery By the 9th century CE, several city-states had sprouted across the land: the Pyu states in the central dry zone, Mon states along the southern coastline and Arakanese states along the western littoral. The balance was upset when the Pyu states came under repeated attacks from the Kingdom of Nanzhao between the 750s and the 830s. Sony VAIO VPCCW1S1E/R Battery In the mid-to-late 9th century, the Mranma (Burmans/Bamar) of Nanzhao founded a small settlement at Pagan (Bagan). It was one of several competing city-states until the late 10th century when it grew in authority and grandeur.^[25] Imperial era (849–1885) Pagan gradually grew to absorb its surrounding states until the 1050s–1060s when Anawrahta founded the Pagan Empire, the first ever unification of the Irrawaddy valley and its periphery. In the 12th and 13th centuries, Sony VAIO VPCCW1S1E/W Battery the Pagan Empire and theKhmer Empire were two main powers in mainland Southeast Asia.^[26] The Burmese language and culture gradually became dominant in the upper Irrawaddy valley, eclipsing the Pyu, Mon and Pali norms by the late 12th century. Theravada Buddhism slowly began to spread to the village level although Tantric, Mahayana, Brahmanic, and animist practices remained heavily entrenched. Sony VAIO VPCCW21FX/B Battery Pagan's rulers and wealthy built over 10,000 Buddhist temples in the Pagan capital zone alone. Repeated Mongol invasions (1277–1301) toppled the four-century-old kingdom in 1287. Pagan's collapse was followed by 250 years of political fragmentation that lasted well into the 16th century. Sony VAIO VPCCW21FX/L Battery Like the Burmans four centuries earlier, Shan migrants who arrived with the Mongol invasions stayed behind. Several competing Shan states came to dominate the entire northwestern to eastern arc surrounding the Irrawaddy valley. The valley too was beset with petty states until the late 14th century when two sizable powers, Ava Kingdom and Hanthawaddy Kingdom, emerged. Sony VAIO VPCCW21FX/R Battery In the west, a politically fragmented Arakan was under competing influences of its stronger neighbors until the Kingdom of Mrauk Uunified the Arakan coastline for the first time in 1437. Early on, Ava fought wars of unification (1385–1424) but could never quite reassemble the lost empire. Sony VAIO VPCCW21FX/W Battery Having held off Ava, Hanthawaddy entered its golden age, and Arakan went on to become a power in its own right for the next 350 years. In contrast, constant warfare left Ava greatly weakened, and it slowly disintegrated from 1481 onward. In 1527, theConfederation of Shan States conquered Ava itself, and ruled Upper Burma until 1555. Sony VAIO VPCCW26EC Battery Like the Pagan Empire, Ava, Hanthawaddy and the Shan states were all multi-ethnic polities. Despite the wars, cultural synchronization continued. This period is considered a golden age for Burmese culture. Burmese literature "grew more confident, popular, and stylistically diverse", Sony VAIO VPCCW26FX/B Battery and the second generation of Burmese law codes as well as the earliest pan-Burma chronicles emerged.^[28] Hanthawaddy monarchs introduced religious reforms that later spread to the rest of the country.^[29] Many splendid temples of Mrauk U were built during this period. Political unification returned in the mid-16th century, Sony VAIO VPCCW28EC Battery due to the efforts of one tiny Toungoo (Taungoo), a former vassal state of Ava. Toungoo's young, ambitious king Tabinshwehti defeated the more powerful Hanthawaddy in 1541. His successorBayinnaung went on to conquer a vast swath of mainland Southeast Asia including the Shan states, Lan Na, Manipur, the Chinese Shan states, Sony VAIO VPCCW28FJ/P Battery Siam, Lan Xang and southern Arakan. However, the largest empire in the history of Southeast Asia unravelled soon after Bayinnaung's death in 1581, completely collapsing by 1599. Siam seized Tenasserim and Lan Na, and Portuguesemercenaries established Portuguese rule at Syriam (Thanlyin). Sony VAIO VPCCW28FJ/R Battery The dynasty regrouped and defeated the Portuguese in 1613 and Siam in 1614. It restored a smaller, more manageable kingdom, encompassing Lower Burma, Upper Burma, Shan states, Lan Na and upper Tenasserim. The Restored Toungoo kings created a legal and political framework whose basic features would continue well into the 19th century. Sony VAIO VPCCW28FJ/W Battery The crown completely replaced the hereditary chieftainships with appointed governorships in the entire Irrawaddy valley, and greatly reduced the hereditary rights of Shan chiefs. Its trade and secular administrative reforms built a prosperous economy for more than 80 years. From the 1720s onward, the kingdom was beset with repeated Manipuri raids into Upper Burma, Sony VAIO VPCCW29FJ/W Battery and a nagging rebellion in Lan Na. In 1740, the Mon of Lower Burma founded the Restored Hanthawaddy Kingdom. Hanthawaddy forces sacked Ava in 1752, ending the 266-year-old Toungoo Dynasty. After the fall of Ava, one resistance group, Alaungpaya's Konbaung Dynasty defeatedRestored Hanthawaddy, and by 1759, Sony VAIO VPCCW2AFJ Battery had reunited all of Burma (and Manipur), and driven out the French and the British who had provided arms to Hanthawaddy. By 1770, Alaungpaya's heirs had subdued much of Laos (1765),defeated Siam (1767), and defeated four invasions by China (1765–1769). Sony VAIO VPCCW2AHJ Battery With Burma preoccupied by the Chinese threat, Siam recovered its territories by 1770, and went on to capture Lan Na by 1776. Burma and Siam went to war until 1855, but all resulted in a stalemate, exchanging Tenasserim (to Burma) and Lan Na (to Siam). Faced with a powerful China and a resurgent Siam in the east, King Bodawpaya turned west, acquiring Arakan (1785), Sony VAIO VPCCW2S1E Battery Manipur (1814) and Assam (1817). It was the second largest empire in Burmese history but also one with a long ill-defined border with British India.^[31] The breadth of this empire was short lived. Burma lost Arakan, Manipur, Assam and Tenasserim to the British in the First Anglo-Burmese War (1824–1826). Sony VAIO VPCCW2S1E/B Battery In 1852, the British easily seized Lower Burma in the Second Anglo-Burmese War. King Mindontried to modernize the kingdom, and in 1875 narrowly avoided annexation by ceding the Karenni States. The British, alarmed by the consolidation of French Indo-China, annexed the remainder of the country in the Third Anglo-Burmese War in 1885. Sony VAIO VPCCW2S1E/L Battery Konbaung kings extended Restored Toungoo's administrative reforms, and achieved unprecedented levels of internal control and external expansion. For the first time in history, the Burmese language and culture came to predominate the entire Irrawaddy valley. The evolution and growth of Burmese literature and theater continued, Sony VAIO VPCCW2S1E/P Battery aided by an extremely high adult male literacy rate for the era (half of all males and 5% of females).^[32] Nonetheless, the extent and pace of reforms were uneven and ultimately proved insufficient to stem the advance of British colonialism. Colonial era (1886–1948) With the fall of Mandalay, all of Burma came under British rule. Sony VAIO VPCCW2S1E/R Battery Throughout the colonial era, many Indians arrived as soldiers, civil servants, construction workers and traders and, along with the Anglo-Burmese community, dominated commercial and civil life in Burma. Rangoon became the capital of British Burma and an important port between Calcutta and Singapore. Sony VAIO VPCCW2S1E/W Battery Burmese resentment was strong and was vented in violent riots that paralysed Yangon on occasion all the way until the 1930s.^[33] Some of the discontent was caused by a disrespect for Burmese culture and traditions such as the British refusal to remove shoes when they entered pagodas. Buddhist monks became the vanguards of the independence movement. Sony VAIO VPCCW2S5C CN1 Battery U Wisara, an activist monk, died in prison after a 166-day hunger strike to protest a rule that forbade him from wearing his Buddhist robes while imprisoned.^[34] On 1 April 1937, Burma became a separately administered colony of Great Britain and Ba Maw the first Prime Minister and Premier of Burma. Sony VAIO VPCF112FX/B Battery Ba Maw was an outspoken advocate for Burmese self-rule and he opposed the participation of Great Britain, and by extension Burma, in World War II. He resigned from the Legislative Assembly and was arrested for sedition. In 1940, before Japan formally entered the Second World War, Aung San formed the Burma Independence Army in Japan. Sony VAIO VPCF115FG/B Battery A major battleground, Burma was devastated during the Second World War. By March 1942, within months after they entered the war, Japanese troops had advanced on Rangoon and the British administration had collapsed. A Burmese Executive Administration headed by Ba Maw was established by the Japanese in August 1942. Sony VAIO VPCF116FGBI Battery Beginning in late 1944, allied troops launched a series of offensives that led to the end of Japanese rule in July 1945. However, the battles were intense with much of Burma laid waste by the fighting. Although many Burmese fought initially for the Japanese, some Burmese, mostly from the ethnic minorities, also served in the British Burma Army. Sony VAIO VPCF117FJ/W Battery The Burma Independence Army and the Arakan National Army fought with the Japanese from 1942 to 1944, but switched allegiance to the Allied side in 1945. Following the World War II, Aung San negotiated the Panglong Agreement with ethnic leaders that guaranteed the independence of Burma as a unified state. Sony VAIO VPCF117HG/BI Battery In 1947, Aung San became Deputy Chairman of the Executive Council of Burma, a transitional government. But in July 1947, political rivals^[36] assassinated Aung San and several cabinet members.^[37] Democratic republic (1948–1962) On 4 January 1948, the nation became an independent republic, named the Union of Burma, Sony VAIO VPCF118FJ/W Battery with Sao Shwe Thaik as its first President and U Nu as its first Prime Minister. Unlike most other former British colonies and overseas territories, it did not become a member of the Commonwealth. A bicameral parliament was formed, consisting of a Chamber of Deputies and a Chamber of Nationalities,^[38] and multi-party elections were held in 1951–1952, 1956 and 1960. Sony VAIO VPCF119FC Battery The geographical area Burma encompasses today can be traced to the Panglong Agreement, which combined Burma Proper, which consisted of Lower Burma and Upper Burma, and the Frontier Areas, which had been administered separately by the British.^[39] In 1961, U Thant, then the Union of Burma's Permanent Representative to the United Nations and former Secretary to the Prime Minister, Sony VAIO VPCF119FC/BI Battery was elected Secretary-General of the United Nations, a position he held for ten years.^[40] Among the Burmese to work at the UN when he was Secretary-General was a young Aung San Suu Kyi, who went on to become winner of the 1991 Nobel Peace Prize. Sony VAIO VPCF119FJ/BI Battery On 2 March 1962, the military led by General Ne Win took control of Burma through a coup d'état and the government has been under direct or indirect control by the military since then. Between 1962 and 1974, Burma was ruled by a revolutionary council headed by the general, Sony VAIO VPCF11AFJ Battery and almost all aspects of society (business, media, production) were nationalized or brought under government control under the Burmese Way to Socialism^[41] which combined Soviet-style nationalisation andcentral planning with the governmental implementation of superstitious beliefs. Sony VAIO VPCF11AGJ Battery A new constitution of the Socialist Republic of the Union of Burmawas adopted in 1974, until 1988, the country was ruled as a one-party system, with the General and other military officers resigning and ruling through theBurma Socialist Programme Party (BSPP).^[42] During this period, Burma became one of the world's most impoverished countries.^[43] Sony VAIO VPCF11AHJ Battery There were sporadic protests against military rule during the Ne Win years and these were almost always violently suppressed. On 7 July 1962, the government broke up demonstrations at Rangoon University, killing 15 students.^[41] In 1974, the military violently suppressed anti-government protests at the funeral of U Thant. Sony VAIO VPCF11JFX/B Battery Student protests in 1975, 1976 and 1977 were quickly suppressed by overwhelming force.^[42] SPDC rule (1988–2011) In 1988, unrest over economic mismanagement and political oppression by the government led to widespread pro-democracy demonstrations throughout the country known as the 8888 Uprising. Sony VAIO VPCF11M1E Battery Security forces killed thousands of demonstrators, and General Saw Maung staged a coup d'état and formed the State Law and Order Restoration Council (SLORC). In 1989, SLORC declared martial law after widespread protests. The military government finalised plans for People's Assembly elections on 31 May 1989. Sony VAIO VPCF11M1E/H Battery SLORC changed the country's official English name from the "Socialist Republic of the Union of Burma" to the "Union of Myanmar" in 1989. In May 1990, the government held free elections for the first time in almost 30 years and the National League for Democracy(NLD), the party of Aung San Suu Kyi, won 392 out of a total 489 seats (i.e., 80% of the seats). Sony VAIO VPCF11MFX/B Battery However, the military junta refused to cede power^[45] and continued to rule the nation as SLORC until 1997, and then as the State Peace and Development Council (SPDC) until its dissolution in March 2011. On 23 June 1997, Burma was admitted into the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN). Sony VAIO VPCF11S1E Battery On 27 March 2006, the military junta, which had moved the national capital from Yangon to a site near Pyinmana in November 2005, officially named the new capital Naypyidaw, meaning "city of the kings".^[46] 2007 Burmese anti-government protest In August 2007, an increase in the price of diesel and petrol led to a series of anti-government protests that were dealt with harshly by the government.^[ Sony VAIO VPCF11S1E/B Battery The protests then became a campaign of civil resistance (also called the Saffron Revolution.^[48][49])^[50] led by Buddhist monks,^[51] hundreds of whom defied the house arrest of democracy advocate Aung San Suu Kyi to pay their respects at the gate of her house. The government finally cracked down on them on 26 September 2007. Sony VAIO VPCF11Z1E Battery The crackdown was harsh, with reports of barricades at the Shwedagon Pagoda and monks killed. However, there were also rumours of disagreement within the Burmese armed forces, but none was confirmed. In May 2008, Cyclone Nargis caused extensive damage in the densely populated, rice-farming delta of the Irrawaddy Division.^[52] Sony VAIO VPCF11Z1E/BI Battery It was the worst natural disaster in Burmese history with reports of an estimated 200,000 people dead or missing, and damage totaled to 10 billion dollars (USD), and as many as 1 million left homeless.^[53] In the critical days following this disaster, Burma's isolationist government hindered recovery efforts by delaying the entry of United Nations planes delivering medicine, food, and other supplies.^[54] Sony VAIO VPCF11ZHJ Battery In early August 2009, a conflict known as the Kokang incident broke out in Shan State in northern Burma. For several weeks, junta troops fought against ethnic minorities including the Han Chinese,^[55] Va, and Kachin.^[56][57] From 8–12 August, the first days of the conflict, as many as 10,000 Burmese civilians fled to Yunnan province in neighbouring China. Sony VAIO VPCF127HGBI Battery Elections and reforms (2010–present) The Burmese constitutional referendum, 2008, promised a "discipline-flourishing democracy", was held on 10 May 2008 and the name of the country was changed from the Union of Myanmar to the Republic of the Union of Myanmar. Sony VAIO VPCF137HG/BI Battery General elections were held under the new constitution in 2010. Observers described the election day of 2010 as mostly peaceful, though there were alleged irregularities in polling stations and the United Nations and Western countries condemned the elections as fraudulent.^[59] The official turnout was reported as 77%. Sony VAIO VPCS111FM/S Battery The military-backed Union Solidarity and Development Partydeclared victory stating that it had won 80% of the votes. That claim was widely disputed by pro-democracy opposition groups, which asserted that the military regime engaged in rampant fraud to achieve its result.^[60] Since the elections, Sony VAIO VPCS115EC Battery the government has embarked on a series of reforms toward liberal democracy, mixed economy, and reconciliation although the motives of such reforms are still debated. These reforms include the release of pro-democracy leader Aung San Suu Kyi from house arrest, establishment of the National Human Rights Commission, Sony VAIO VPCS115FG Battery general amnesties of more than 200 political prisoners, institution of new labour laws that allow labour unions and strikes, relaxation of press censorship and regulations of currency practices.^[61] The reforms come as a surprise to many because the election of 2010 was considered fraudulent by the international community.^[62] Sony VAIO VPCS117GG Battery The consequences of the reforms are far-reaching. The ASEAN members have approved Burma's bid for ASEAN chair in 2014. United States Secretary of State Hillary Clinton visited Burma in December 2011 to encourage further progress, the first visit by a Secretary of State in more than fifty years. Sony VAIO VPCS117GGB Battery Clinton met with Burmese president Thein Sein as well as opposition leader Daw Aung San Suu Kyi.^[63] Domestically, Aung San Suu Kyi's party, National League for Democracy was permitted to participate in the by-election after the government abolished laws that led to NLD's boycott.^[64] Sony VAIO VPCS118EC Battery However, uncertainties exist as more than 1,600 political prisoners are not yet released and the clashes between Burmese Army and local insurgent groups continue. The April 1 election was perhaps the most promising moment of reform. Led by Aung San Suu Kyi, the National League for Democracy won 43 of 45 seats available in the election. Sony VAIO VPCS119FJ/B Battery Although only a small fraction of the seats were up for a vote, the previously illegal NLD was allowed to campaign, run, and win for the first time. Also a first, international election monitors were allowed to monitor the voting.^[65] Sony VAIO VPCS119GC Battery Despite such positive strides, the NLD has reported over 50 instances of voting irregularities on election day as well as a campaign of fraud and harassment leading up to the election.^[66] Geography Burma, which has a total area of 678,500 square kilometres (262,000 sq mi), is the largest country in mainland Southeast Asia, and the 40th-largest in the world. Sony VAIO VPCS11AFJ Battery It lies between latitudes 9° and 29°N, and longitudes 92° and 102°E. As of February 2011, Burma constituted of 14 states and regions, 67 districts, 330 townships, 64 sub‐townships, 377 towns, 2914 Wards, 14220 village tracts and 68290 villages. It is bordered to the northwest by the Chittagong Division of Bangladesh and the Mizoram, Manipur, Nagaland and Arunachal Pradesh states of India to the northwest. Sony VAIO VPCS11AGJ Battery Its north and northeast border straddles the Tibet and Yunnan regions of China for a Sino-Burman border total of 2,185 kilometres (1,358 mi). It is bounded by Laos and Thailand to the southeast. Burma has 1,930 kilometres (1,200 mi) of contiguous coastline along the Bay of Bengal and Andaman Sea to the southwest and the south, which forms one quarter of its total perimeter.^[9] Sony VAIO VPCS11AHJ Battery In the north, the Hengduan Shan mountains form the border with China. Hkakabo Razi, located in Kachin State, at an elevation of 5,881 metres (19,295 ft), is the highest point in Burma.^[67] Three mountain ranges, namely the Rakhine Yoma, the Bago Yoma, and the Shan Plateau exist within Burma, all of which run north-to-south from the Himalayas. Sony VAIO VPCS11AVJ Battery The mountain chains divide Burma's three river systems, which are the Irrawaddy, Salween (Thanlwin), and the Sittaung rivers.^[69] The Irrawaddy River, Burma's longest river, nearly 2,170 kilometres (1,348 mi) long, flows into the Gulf of Martaban. Fertile plains exist in the valleys between the mountain chains.^[68] Sony VAIO VPCS11J7E/B Battery The majority of Burma's population lives in the Irrawaddy valley, which is situated between the Rakhine Yoma and the Shan Plateau. Climate Much of the country lies between the Tropic of Cancer and the Equator. It lies in the monsoon region of Asia, Sony VAIO VPCS11M1E/W Battery with its coastal regions receiving over 5,000 mm (196.9 in) of rain annually. Annual rainfall in the delta region is approximately 2,500 mm (98.4 in), while average annual rainfall in the Dry Zone, which is located in central Burma, is less than 1,000 mm (39.4 in). Northern regions of the country are the coolest, with average temperatures of 21 °C (70 °F). Sony VAIO VPCS11V9E Battery Coastal and delta regions have an average maximum temperature of 32 °C (89.6 °F).^[69] Wildlife The country's slow economic growth has contributed to the preservation of much of its environment and ecosystems. Sony VAIO VPCS11V9E/B Battery Forests, including dense tropical growth and valuable teak in lower Burma, cover over 49% of the country, including areas of acacia,bamboo, ironwood and michelia champaca. Coconut and betel palm and rubber have been introduced. In the highlands of the north, oak, pine and various rhododendrons cover much of the land.^[70] Sony VAIO VPCS11X9E/B Battery Heavy logging since the new 1995 forestry law went into effect has seriously reduced forest acreage and wildlife habitat.^[71] The lands along the coast support all varieties oftropical fruits and once had large areas of mangroves although much of the protective mangroves have disappeared. In much of central Burma (the Dry Zone), vegetation is sparse and stunted. Sony VAIO VPCS123FGB Battery Typical jungle animals, particularly tigers and leopards, occur sparsely in Burma. In upper Burma, there are rhinoceros, wildbuffalo, wild boars, deer, antelope, and elephants, which are also tamed or bred in captivity for use as work animals, particularly in the lumber industry. Sony VAIO VPCS125EC Battery Smaller mammals are also numerous, ranging from gibbons and monkeys to flying foxes andtapirs. The abundance of birds is notable with over 800 species, including parrots, peafowl, pheasants, crows, herons, andpaddybirds. Among reptile species there are crocodiles, geckos, cobras, Burmese pythons, and turtles. Sony VAIO VPCS128EC Battery Hundreds of species offreshwater fish are wide-ranging, plentiful and are very important food sources.^[72] For a list of protected areas, see List of protected areas of Burma. Government and politics The constitution of Burma, its third since independence, was drafted by its military rulers and published in September 2008. Sony VAIO VPCS129GC Battery The country is governed as apresidential republic with a bicameral legislature, with a portion of legislatures appointed by the military and others elected in general elections. The current head of state, inaugurated as President on 30 March 2011, is Thein Sein. The legislature, called the Pyidaungsu Hluttaw, is bicameral and made up of two houses: Sony VAIO VPCS12C7E/B Battery The 224-seat upper house Amyotha Hluttaw (House of Nationalities) and the 440-seat lower house Pyithu Hluttaw (House of Representatives). The upper house consists of 224 member of which 168 are directly elected and 56 are appointed by the Burmese Armed Forces while the lower house consists of 440 members of which 330 are directly elected and 110 are appointed by the armed forces. Sony VAIO VPCS12L9E/B Battery The major political parties are the National Democratic Force and the two backed by the military: the National Unity Party, and the Union Solidarity and Development Party. The National League for Democracy, the party of Aung San Suu Kyi, was declared illegal before the 2010 elections for failing to register for the elections. Sony VAIO VPCS12V9E/B Battery Burma's army-drafted constitution was approved in a referendum in May 2008. The results, 92.4% of the 22 million voters with an official turnout of 99%, are considered suspect by many international observers and by the National league of democracy with reports of widespread fraud, ballot stuffing, and voter intimidation.^[73] Sony VAIO VPCY115FGS Battery The elections of 2010 resulted in a victory for the military-backed Union Solidarity and Development Party and various foreign observers questioned the fairness of the elections.One criticism of the election was that only government sanctioned political parties were allowed to contest in it and the popularNational League for Democracy was declared illegal and is still barred from political activities. Sony VAIO VPCY115FX/BI Battery However, immediately following the elections, the government ended the house arrest of the democracy advocate and leader of the National League for Democracy, Aung San Suu Kyi.^[78] and her ability to move freely around the country is considered an important test of the military's movement toward more openness.^[77] Sony VAIO VPCY115FXBI Battery After unexpected reforms in 2011, NLD senior leaders have decided to register as a political party and to field candidates in future by-elections.^[79] Burma rates as a highly corrupt nation on the Corruption Perceptions Index with a rank of 180th out of 183 countries worldwide and a rating of 1.5 out of 10 (10 being least corrupt and 0 being highly corrupt) as of 2011.^[80] Sony VAIO VPCY118EC Battery Human rights Human rights in Burma are a long-standing concern for the international community and human rights organizations. Members of the United Nations and major international human rights organizations have issued repeated and consistent reports of widespread and systematic human rights violations in Burma. Sony VAIO VPCY118GX/BI Battery The United Nations General Assembly has repeatedly^[81] called on the Burmese Military Junta to respect human rights and in November 2009 the General Assembly adopted a resolution "strongly condemning the ongoing systematic violations of human rights and fundamental freedoms" and calling on the Burmese Military Regime Sony VAIO VPCY119FJ/S Battery "to take urgent measures to put an end to violations of international human rights and humanitarian law."^[82] International human rights organizations including Human Rights Watch,^[83] Amnesty International^[84] and the American Association for the Advancement of Science^[85] Sony VAIO VPCY11AFJ Battery have repeatedly documented and condemned widespread human rights violations. There is consensus that the military regime in Burma is one of the world's most repressive and abusive regimes.^[86][87] They have claimed that there is no independent judiciary in Burma. Forced labour, human trafficking, and child labour are common.^[88] Sony VAIO VPCY11AGJ Battery The military is also notorious for rampant use of sexual violence as an instrument of control, including allegations of systematic rapes and taking of sex slaves as porters for the military. A women's pro-democracy movement has formed in exile, largely along the Thai border and in Chiang Mai. Sony VAIO VPCY11AHJ Battery There is a growing international movement to defend women's human rights issues.^[89] The Freedom in the World 2011 report by Freedom House notes that "The military junta has long ruled by decree and controlled all executive, legislative, and judicial powers; suppressed nearly all basic rights; and committed human rights abuses with impunity. Sony VAIO VPCY11AVJ Battery The junta carefully rigged the electoral framework surrounding the 2010 national elections, which were neither free nor fair. The country’s more than 2,100 political prisoners included about 429 members of the NLD, the victors in the 1990 elections."^[90] Evidence has been gathered suggesting that the Burmese regime has marked certain ethnic minorities such as the Karenfor extermination or 'Burmisation'.^[91] Sony VAIO VPCY11M1E/S Battery This, however, has received little attention from the international community since it has been more subtle and indirect than the mass killings in places like Rwanda.^[92] The Freedom in the World 2012 report notes improvement due to new reforms. Sony VAIO VPCY11S1E Battery Previously rated as a 7, the lowest rating, for both civil liberties and political rights, the release of political prisoners and a loosening of restriction has given Burma a 6 for civil liberties in the most recent Freedom in the World.^[93] However, since the transition to new government in August 2011, Burma's human rights record has been improving according to the Crisis Group.^[94] Sony VAIO VPCY11V9E/S Battery The government has assembled a National Human Rights Commission consisted of 15 members from various backgrounds.^[95] Several activists in exile including Thee Lay Thee Anyeint members, have returned to Burma after President Thein Sein’s offer to expatriates to return home to work for national development.^[96] Sony VAIO VPCY218EC/BI Battery In an address to the United Nations Security Council in 22 September 2011, Burma's Foreign Minister Wanna Maung Lwin confirmed the release of prisoners in near future.^[97] The government also relaxes reporting laws although still highly restrictive.^[98] In September 2011, several banned websites, Sony VAIO VPCY218EC/G Battery including YouTube, Democratic Voice of Burma and Voice of America, have been unblocked.^[99] A 2011 report by the Hauser Center for Nonprofit Organizations found that while constrained by donor restrictions on contact with the Myanmar government, international humanitarian Non Governmental Organizations (NGOs) Sony VAIO VPCY218EC/L Battery see opportunities for effective advocacy with government officials, especially at the local level. At the same time, International NGOs are mindful of the ethical quandary of how to work with the government without bolstering or appeasing it.^[100] Health The general state of health care in Myanmar (Burma) is poor. Sony VAIO VPCY218EC/P Battery The military government spends anywhere from 0.5% to 3% of the country's GDP on health care, consistently ranking among the lowest in the world.^[101][102] Although health care is nominally free, in reality, patients have to pay for medicine and treatment, even in public clinics and hospitals. Public hospitals lack many of the basic facilities and equipment. Sony VAIO VPCY21S1E/L Battery HIV/AIDS, recognised as a disease of concern by the Burmese Ministry of Health, is most prevalent among sex workers and intravenous drug users. In 2005, the estimated adult HIV prevalence rate in Burma was 1.3% (200,000 - 570,000 people), according to UNAIDS, and early indicators show that the epidemic may be waning in the country, Sony VAIO VPCY21S1E/P Battery although the epidemic continues to expand.^{[103][104][105]} However, the National AIDS Programme Burma found that 32% of sex workers and 43% of intravenous drug users in Burma have HIV.^[105] Burma's government spends the least percentage of its GDP on health care of any country in the world, Sony VAIO VPCY21S1E/SI Battery and international donor organisations give less to Burma, per capita, than any other country except India.^[106] According to the report named "Preventable Fate", published by Doctors without Borders, 25,000 Burmese AIDS patients died in 2007, deaths that could largely have been prevented by antiretroviral therapy drugs and proper treatment.^[106] Sony VAIO VPCCW2S5C CN1 Battery In June 2011, the United Nations Population Fund released a report on The State of the World's Midwifery. It contained new data on the midwifery workforce and policies relating to newborn and maternal mortality for 58 countries. The 2010 maternal mortality rate per 100,000 births for Myanmar is 240. Sony VAIO VPCEA20 Battery This is compared with 219.3 in 2008 and 662 in 1990. The under 5 mortality rate, per 1,000 births is 73 and the neonatal mortality as a percentage of under 5's mortality is 47. Administrative divisions (regions and states) The country is divided into seven states  and seven regions , Sony VAIO VPCEB10 Battery formerly called divisions. ^[107] The announcement on the renaming of division to regions was made on 20 August 2010.^[108] Regions are predominantly Bamar (that is, mainly inhabited by the dominant ethnic group). States, in essence, are regions which are home to particular ethnic minorities. Sony VAIO VPCEB11FM Battery The administrative divisions are further subdivided into districts, which are further subdivided into townships, wards, and villages. Though the country's foreign relations, particularly with Western nations, have been strained, relations have thawed since the reforms following the 2010 elections. Sony VAIO VPCEB11FM/BI Battery After years of diplomatic isolation and economic and military sanctions,^[110] the United States relaxed curbs on foreign aid to Burma in November 2011^[111] and announced the resumption of diplomatic relations on 13 January 2012^[112] The European Union has placed sanctions on Burma, including an arms embargo, Sony VAIO VPCEB11FM/T Battery cessation of trade preferences, and suspension of all aid with the exception of humanitarian aid.^[113] U.S. and European government sanctions against the former military government, coupled with boycotts and other direct pressure on corporations by supporters of the democracy movement, have resulted in the withdrawal from the country of most U.S. Sony VAIO VPCEB11FM/WI Battery and many European companies.^[114] On 13 April 2012 British Prime Minister David Cameron called for the economic sanctions on Burma to be suspended in the wake of the pro-democracy party gaining 43 seats out of a possible 45 in the 2012 by-elections with the party leader, Aung San Suu Kyi becoming a member of the Burmese parliament.^[115] Sony VAIO VPCEB11FX Battery Despite Western isolation, Asian corporations have generally remained willing to continue investing in the country and to initiate new investments, particularly in natural resource extraction. The country has close relations with neighbouring India and China with several Indian and Chinese companies operating in the country. Sony VAIO VPCEB11FX/BI Battery There remains active debate as to the extent to which the American-led sanctions have had adverse effects on the civilian population or on the military rulers.^[116][117] Burma has also received extensive military aid from India and China in the past.^[118] According to some estimates, Burma has received more than US$200 million in military aid from India.^[119] Sony VAIO VPCEB11FX/T Battery Under India's Look East policy, fields of cooperation between India and Burma include remote sensing,^[120] oil and gas exploration,^[121] information technology,^[122] hydro power^[123] and construction of ports and buildings.^[124] In 2008, India suspended military aid to Burma over the issue of human rights abuses by the ruling junta, although it has preserved extensive commercial ties which provide the regime with much needed revenue.^[125] Sony VAIO VPCEB11FX/WI Battery Burma has been a member of ASEAN since 1997. Though it gave up its turn to hold the ASEAN chair and host the ASEAN Summit in 2006, it is scheduled to chair the forum and host the summit in 2014.^[126] In November 2008, Burma's political situation with neighbouring Bangladesh became tense as they began searching for natural gas in a disputed block of the Bay of Bengal.^[ Sony VAIO VPCEB11GX Battery The fate of Rohingya refugees also remains an issue between Bangladesh and Burma.^[128] The country's armed forces are known as the Tatmadaw, which numbers 488,000. The Tatmadaw comprises the Army, the Navy, and the Air Force. The country ranked twelfth in the world for its number of active troops in service.^[9] Sony VAIO VPCEB11GX/BI Battery The military is very influential in the country, with top cabinet and ministry posts held bymilitary officers. Official figures for military spending are not available. Estimates vary widely because of uncertain exchange rates, but military spending is very high.^[129] The country imports most of its weapons from Russia, Ukraine, China and India. Sony VAIO VPCEB11GX/T Battery The country is building a research nuclear reactor near Pyin Oo Lwin with help from Russia. It is one of the signatories of the nuclear non-proliferation pact since 1992 and a member of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) since 1957. The military junta had informed the IAEA in September 2000 of its intention to construct the reactor. Sony VAIO VPCEB11GX/WI Battery The research reactor outbuilding frame was built by ELE steel industries limited of Yangon and water from Anisakhan/BE water fall will be used for the reactor cavity cooling system.^[130][131] In 2010 as part of the Wikileaks leaked cables, Burma was suspected of using North Korean construction teams to build a fortified Surface-to-Air Missile facility.^[132] Sony VAIO VPCEB12FX Battery Until 2005, the United Nations General Assembly annually adopted a detailed resolution about the situation in Burma by consensus. But in 2006 a divided United Nations General Assembly voted through a resolution that strongly called upon the government of Burma to end its systematic violations of human rights.^[137] Sony VAIO VPCEB12FX/BI Battery In January 2007, Russia and China vetoed a draft resolution before the United Nations Security Council^[138] calling on the government of Burma to respect human rights and begin a democratic transition. South Africa also voted against the resolution.^[139] Sony VAIO VPCEB12FX/BIC Battery Economy The country is one of the poorest nations in Southeast Asia, suffering from decades of stagnation, mismanagement and isolation. The lack of an educated workforce skilled in modern technology contributes to the growing problems of the economy.^[140] Sony VAIO VPCEB12FX/T Battery The country lacks adequate infrastructure. Goods travel primarily across the Thai border, where most illegal drugs are exported and along theIrrawaddy River. Railways are old and rudimentary, with few repairs since their construction in the late 19th century.^[141] Highways are normally unpaved, except in the major cities.^[141] Sony VAIO VPCEB14FX Battery Energy shortages are common throughout the country including in Yangon. Under British administration, Burma was the second-wealthiest country in South-East Asia. It had been the world's largest exporter of rice. Burma also had a wealth of natural and labour resources. It produced 75% of the world's teak and had a highly literate population.^[14] Sony VAIO VPCEB14FX/BI Battery The country was believed to be on the fast track to development.^[14] During World War II, the British destroyed the major oil wells and mines for tungsten, tin, lead and silver to keep them from the Japanese. Burma was bombed extensively by both sides. After a parliamentary government was formed in 1948, Prime Minister U Nu embarked upon a policy of nationalization and the state was declared the owner of all land. Sony VAIO VPCEB14FX/T Battery The government also tried to implement a poorly considered Eight-Year plan. By the 1950s, rice exports had fallen by two thirds and mineral exports by over 96% (as compared to the pre-World War II period). Plans were partly financed by printing money, which led to inflation.^[142] The 1962 coup d'état was followed by an economic scheme called the Burmese Way to Socialism, Sony VAIO VPCEB14FX/WI Battery a plan to nationalise all industries, with the exception of agriculture. The catastrophic program turned Burma into one of the world's most impoverished countries.^[43] Burma's admittance to Least Developed Country status by the UN in 1987 highlighted its economic bankruptcy.^[143] The national currency is Kyat. Burma has a dual exchange rate system similar to Cuba.^[144] Sony VAIO VPCEB15FM Battery The market rate was around two hundred times below the government-set rate in 2006.^[145] Inflation averaged 30.1% between 2005 and 2007.^[146] Inflation is a serious problem for the economy. In recent years, both China and India have attempted to strengthen ties with the government for economic benefit. Sony VAIO VPCEB15FM/BI Battery Many nations, including the United States and Canada, and the European Union, have imposed investment and trade sanctions on Burma. The United States has banned all imports from Burma.^[145] Foreign investment comes primarily from China,Singapore, The Philippines, South Korea, India, and Thailand.^[147] The annual import of medicine and medical equipment to Burma during the 2000s was 160 million USD. Sony VAIO VPCEB15FM/T Battery Agriculture The major agricultural product is rice which covers about 60% of the country's total cultivated land area. Rice accounts for 97% of total food grain production by weight. Through collaboration with the International Rice Research Institute 52 modern rice varieties were released in the country between 1966 and 1997, Sony VAIO VPCEB15FM/WI Battery helping increase national rice production to 14 million tons in 1987 and to 19 million tons in 1996. By 1988, modern varieties were planted on half of the country's ricelands, including 98 percent of the irrigated areas.^[149] In 2008 rice production was estimated at 50 million tons.^[150] Burma is also the world's second largest producer of opium, accounting for 8% of entire world production and is a major source of illegal drugs, including amphetamines. Sony VAIO VPCEB15FX Battery Opium bans implemented since 2002 after international pressure have left ex-poppy farmers without sustainable sources of income in the Kokang and Wa regions. They depend on casual labour for income.^[152] Natural resources Burma produces precious stones such as sapphires, pearls and jade. Sony VAIO VPCEB15FX/BI Battery Rubies are the biggest earner; 90% of the world's rubies come from the country, whose red stones are prized for their purity and hue. Thailand buys the majority of the country's gems. Burma's "Valley of Rubies", the mountainous Mogok area, 200 km (120 mi) north of Mandalay, is noted for its rare pigeon's blood rubies and blue sapphires. Sony VAIO VPCEB15FX/T Battery Many U.S. and European jewellery companies, including Bulgari, Tiffany, and Cartier, refuse to import these stones based on reports of deplorable working conditions in the mines. Human Rights Watch has encouraged a complete ban on the purchase of Burmese gems based on these reports and because nearly all profits go to the ruling junta, Sony VAIO VPCEB15FX/WI Battery as the majority of mining activity in the country is government-run.^[154] The government of Burma controls the gem trade by direct ownership or by joint ventures with private owners of mines.^[155] Other industries include agricultural goods, textiles, wood products, construction materials, gems, metals, oil and natural gas. Sony VAIO VPCEB16FX Battery Tourism Since 1992, the government has encouraged tourism in the country. However, fewer than 750,000 tourists enter the country annually.^[156] Burma's Minister of Hotels and Tourism Maj-Gen Saw Lwin has stated that the government receives a significant percentage of the income of private sector tourism services. Sony VAIO VPCEB16FX/B Battery Much of the country is completely off-limits to tourists, and the military very tightly controls interactions between foreigners and the people of Burma, particularly the border regions.^[158] They are not to discuss politics with foreigners, under penalty of imprisonment, and in 2001, Sony VAIO VPCEB16FX/G Battery the Myanmar Tourism Promotion Board issued an order for local officials to protect tourists and limit "unnecessary contact" between foreigners and ordinary Burmese people.^[159] Demographics Burma has a population of about 56 million.^[160] Population figures are rough estimates because the last partial census, Sony VAIO VPCEB16FX/L Battery conducted by the Ministry of Home and Religious Affairs under the control of the military junta, was taken in 1983.^[161] No trustworthy nationwide census has been taken in Burma since 1931. There are over 600,000 registered migrant workers from Burma in Thailand, and millions more work illegally. Sony VAIO VPCEB16FX/P Battery Burmese migrant workers account for 80% of Thailand's migrant workers.^[162] Burma has a population density of 75 per square kilometre (190 /sq mi), one of the lowest in Southeast Asia. Refugee camps exist along Indian, Bangladeshi and Thai borders while several thousand are in Malaysia. Sony VAIO VPCEB16FX/W Battery Conservative estimates state that there are over 295,800 refugees from Burma, with the majority being Karenni, and Kayin and are principally located along the Thai-Burma border.^[163] There are nine permanent refugee camps along the Thai-Burma border, most of which were established in the mid-1980s. Sony VAIO VPCEB17FX Battery The refugee camps are under the care of the Thai-Burma Border Consortium (TBBC). In FY 2009, the U.S. resettled 18,275 refugees from Burma.^[164] There are over 53.42 million Buddhists, over 2.98 million Christians, over 2.27 million Muslims, Sony VAIO VPCEB17FX/B Battery over 0.3 million Hindus and over 0.79 million of those who believe in other religions in the country, according to an answer by Union Minister at Myanmar Parliament on 8 Sep 2011.^[165] Ne Win's rise to power in 1962 and his relentless persecution of "resident aliens" (immigrant groups not recognised as citizens of the Union of Burma) Sony VAIO VPCEB17FX/G Battery led to an exodus/expulsion of some 300,000 Burmese Indians.^[166] They migrated to escape racial discrimination and wholesale nationalisation of private enterprise a few years later in 1964.^[167] The Anglo-Burmese at this time either fled the country or changed their names and blended in with the broader Burmese society. Sony VAIO VPCEB17FX/L Battery Hundreds of thousands of Rohingya Muslims fled Burma and many refugees inundated neighbouring Bangladesh including 200,000 in 1978 as a result of the King Dragon operation in Arakan. Burma is home to four major language families: Sino-Tibetan, Tai–Kadai, Austro-Asiatic, and Indo-European.^[169] Sony VAIO VPCEB17FX/P Battery Sino-Tibetan languages are most widely spoken. They include Burmese, Karen, Kachin, Chin, and Chinese. The primary Tai–Kadai language is Shan. Mon, Palaung, and Wa are the major Austroasiatic languages spoken in Burma. The two major Indo-European languages are Pali, the liturgical language of Theravada Buddhism, and English.^[170] Sony VAIO VPCEB17FX/W Battery According to the UNESCO Institute of Statistics, Burma's official literacy rateas of 2000 was 89.9%.^[171] Historically, Burma has had high literacy rates. To qualify for least developed country status by the UN in order to receive debt relief, Burma lowered its official literacy rate from 78.6% to 18.7% in 1987.^[172] Sony VAIO VPCEB190X Battery Burma is ethnically diverse. The government recognises 135 distinct ethnic groups. While it is extremely difficult to verify this statement, there are at least 108 different ethnolinguistic groups in Burma, consisting mainly of distinct Tibeto-Burman peoples, but with sizeable populations of Tai–Kadai, Hmong–Mien, and Austroasiatic (Mon–Khmer) peoples.^[ Sony VAIO VPCEB19FX Battery ^] The Bamar form an estimated 68% of the population.^[174] 10% of the population are Shan.^[174] The Kayin make up 7% of the population.^[174] The Rakhine people constitute 4% of the population. Overseas Chinese form approximately 3% of the population.Burma's ethnic minority groups prefer the term "ethnic nationality" over "ethnic minority" Sony VAIO VPCEB19GX Battery as the term "minority" furthers their sense of insecurity in the face of what is often described as "Burmanisation"--the proliferation and domination of the dominant Bamar culture over minority cultures. Mon, who form 2% of the population, are ethno-linguistically related to the Khmer.^[174] Overseas Indians comprise 2%.Sony VAIO VPCEB1AFX Battery The remainder are Kachin, Chin, Anglo-Indians and other ethnic minorities. Included in this group are the Anglo-Burmese. Once forming a large and influential community, the Anglo-Burmese left the country in steady streams from 1958 onwards, principally to Australia and the U.K.. Today, it is estimated that only 52,000 Anglo-Burmese remain in the country. Sony VAIO VPCEB1AFX/B Battery There are 110,000 Burmese refugees in Thai border camps.^[176] 89% of the country's population are Buddhist, according to a report on ABC World News Tonight in May 2008 and the Buddha Dharma Education Association.^[177] Culture A diverse range of indigenous cultures exist in Burma, the majority culture is primarily Buddhist and Bamar. Sony VAIO VPCEB1AGX Battery Bamar culture has been influenced by the cultures of neighbouring countries. This is manifested in its language, cuisine, music, dance and theatre. The arts, particularly literature, have historically been influenced by the local form of Theravada Buddhism. Considered the national epic of Burma, the Yama Zatdaw, an adaptation of India's Ramayana, Sony VAIO VPCEB1AGX/BI Battery has been influenced greatly by Thai, Mon, and Indian versions of the play.^[178] Buddhism is practised along with nat worship which involves elaborate rituals to propitiate one from a pantheon of 37 nats. In a traditional village, the monastery is the centre of cultural life. Sony VAIO VPCEB1BGX Battery Monks are venerated and supported by the lay people. A novitiation ceremony called shinbyu is the most important coming of age events for a boy, during which he enters the monastery for a short period of time.All male children in Buddhist families are encouraged to be a novice (beginner for Buddhism) before the age of twenty and to be a monk after the age of twenty. Sony VAIO VPCEB1BGX/BI Battery Girls have ear-piercing ceremonies at the same time.^[181] Burmese culture is most evident in villages where local festivals are held throughout the year, the most important being the pagoda festival. Many villages have a guardian nat, and superstition and taboos are commonplace. British colonial rule also introduced Western elements of culture to Burma. Sony VAIO VPCEB1CGX Battery Burma's educational system is modelled after that of the United Kingdom. Colonial architectural influences are most evident in major cities such as Yangon.^[184] Many ethnic minorities, particularly the Karen in the southeast, and the Kachin and Chin (people) who populate the north and north-east, practice Christianity. Sony VAIO VPCEB1CGX/BI Battery According to CIA World Factbook, the Burman population is 68%, and the Ethnic groups comprise of 32%. However, the exiled leaders and organisations claims that Ethnic population is 40% which is implicitly contrasted with CIA report (official U.S report). Language Burmese, the mother tongue of the Bamar and official language of Burma, Sony VAIO VPCEB1DGX Battery is related to Tibetan and to the Chinese languages.^[170] It is written in a script consisting of circular and semi-circular letters, which were adapted from the Mon script, which in turn was developed from a southern Indian script in the 8th century. The earliest known inscriptions in the Burmese script date from the 11th century. Sony VAIO VPCEB1DGX/BI Battery It is also used to write Pali, the sacred language of Theravada Buddhism, as well as several ethnic minority languages, including Shan, several Karen dialects, and Kayah (Karenni), with the addition of specialised characters and diacritics for each language.^[186] The Burmese language incorporates widespread usage of honorificsand is age-oriented. Sony VAIO VPCEB1EGX Battery Burmese society has traditionally stressed the importance of education. In villages, secular schooling often takes place in monasteries. Secondary and tertiary education take place at government schools. Religion Many religions are practised in Burma. Religious edifices and orders have been in existence for many years. Sony VAIO VPCEB1EGX/BI Battery Festivals can be held on a grand scale. The Christian and Muslim populations do, however, face religious persecution and it is hard, if not impossible, for non-Buddhists to join the army or get government jobs, the main route to success in the country.^[187] Such persecution and targeting of civilians is particularly notable in Eastern Burma, Sony VAIO VPCEB1FGX Battery where over 3000 villages have been destroyed in the past ten years. More than 200,000 Rohingya Muslims have settled in Bangladesh, to escape persecution, over the past 20 years.^[191] 89% of the population embraces Buddhism (mostly Theravada). Other religions are practiced largely without obstruction, Sony VAIO VPCEB1FGX/BI Battery with the notable exception of some ethnic minorities such as the Muslim Rohingya people, who have continued to have their citizenship status denied and therefore do not have access to education, and Christians in Chin State.^[192] 4% of the population practices Christianity; 4%, Islam; 1%, traditionalanimistic beliefs; Sony VAIO VPCEB1GGX Battery and 2% follow other religions, including Mahayana Buddhism, Hinduism, East Asian religions and the Bahá'í Faith.However, according to a U.S. State Department's 2010 international religious freedom report, official statistics are alleged to underestimate the non-Buddhist population. Sony VAIO VPCEB1GGX/BI Battery Independent researchers put the Muslim population at 6 to 10% of the population. A tiny Jewish community in Rangoon had a synagogue but no resident rabbi to conduct services.^[196] Units of measure Burma is one of three countries that still predominantly uses a non-metric system of measure, according to the CIA Factbook. Sony VAIO VPCEB1HGX Battery The common units of measure are unique to Burma, but the government web pages use both imperial units^[198] and metric units^[199] and in June 2011, the Burmese government's Ministry of Commerce began discussing proposals to reform the measurement system in Burma and adopt the metric system used by most of its trading partners. Sony VAIO VPCEB1HGX/BI Battery Education The educational system of Burma is operated by the government agency, the Ministry of Education. Universities and professional institutes from upper Burma and lower Burma are run by two separate entities, the Department of Higher Education of Upper Burma and the Department of Higher Education of Lower Burma. Sony VAIO VPCEB1JFX Battery Headquarters are based in Yangon and Mandalay respectively. The education system is based on the United Kingdom's system, due to nearly a century of British and Christian presences in Burma. Nearly all schools are government-operated, but there has been a recent increase in privately funded English language schools. Sony VAIO VPCEB1JFX/B Battery Schooling is compulsory until the end of elementary school, probably about 9 years old, while the compulsory schooling age is 15 or 16 at international level. There are 101 universities, 12 institutes, 9 degree colleges and 24 colleges in Burma, a total of 146 higher education institutions. Sony VAIO VPCEB1JFX/G Battery There are 10 Technical Training Schools, 23 nursing training schools, 1 sport academy and 20 midwifery schools. There are 2047 Basic Education High Schools, 2605 Basic Education Middle Schools, 29944 Basic Education Primary Schools and 5952 Post Primary Schools. Sony VAIO VPCEB1JFX/L Battery 1692 multimedia classrooms exist within this system. There are four international schools which are acknowledged by WASC and College Board – The International School Yangon(ISY), Crane International School Yangon (CISM), Yangon International School (YIS) and International School of Myanmar (ISM) in Yangon. Sony VAIO VPCEB1JFX/P Battery Media Due to Burma's political climate, there are not many media companies in relation to the country's population, although a certain number exists. Some are privately owned, but all programming must meet with the approval of the censorship board. Sony VAIO VPCEB1JFX/W Battery Burma is the primary subject of a 2007 graphic novel titled Chroniques Birmanes by Québécois author and animator, Guy Delisle. The graphic novel was translated into English under the title Burma Chronicles in 2008. In 2009, a documentary about Burmese videojournalists called Burma VJ was released. Sony VAIO VPCEB1KGX Battery This film was nominated for Best Documentary Feature at the 2010 Academy Awards. Naypyidaw (Burmese: MLCTS: Nepranytau, officially spelled Nay Pyi Taw and Naypyitaw;pronounced: [nèpjìdɔ̀]) is the capital city of Burma, also known as Myanmar. It is administered as the Naypyidaw Union Territory, as per the 2008 Constitution.^[1] Sony VAIO VPCEB1KGX/B Battery On 6 November 2005, the administrative capital of Myanmar was officially moved to a greenfield 3.2 km (2.0 mi) west of Pyinmana, and approximately 320 km (200 mi) north of Yangon (Rangoon), the previous capital.^[6] The capital's official name was announced on 27 March 2006, Myanmar Armed Forces Day. Sony VAIO VPCEB1KGX/W Battery Much of this planned city is still under construction, which is set to be completed by around 2012.^[7] As of 2009, the population was 925,000,^[5] which makes it Myanmar's third largest city, behind Yangon and Mandalay. The city is one of the world's 10 fastest-growing cities. Sony VAIO VPCEB1LFX Battery ay Pyi Daw is generally translated as "royal capital",^[9] "seat of the king" or "abode of kings".^[3] Traditionally, it was used as a suffix to the names of royal capitals, such as Mandalay, which was called (Yadanabon Naypyidaw). The name literally means "royal city of the sun" in Burmese. Sony VAIO VPCEB1LFX/BI Battery Naypyidaw has a short history, having been founded on a greenfield site in the shrubland some 3 kilometres (1.9 mi) west of Pyinmana, and approximately 320 kilometres (200 mi) north of Yangon, with construction starting in 2002.^[3] At least 25 construction companies were hired by the military government to build the city, including Asia World and Htoo Ltd. Sony VAIO VPCEB1LFX/WI Battery The military government began moving government ministries from Yangon to Naypyidaw on 6 November 2005 at theastrologically auspicious time of 6:37 a.m.^[11] Five days later, on 11 November at 11 a.m., a second convoy of 1,100 military trucks carrying 11 military battalions and 11 government ministries left Yangon. Sony VAIO VPCEB1MFX Battery The ministries were expected to be mostly in place by the end of February 2006; however, the hasty move led to a lack of schools and other amenities which separated the government employees from their families for the time being. The government originally prohibited families of government workers from moving to the new capital.^[12] Sony VAIO VPCEB1MFX/BI Battery Military headquarters were located in a separate compound from the government ministries, and civilians have been banned from entering either. Vendors are restricted to a commercial zone near the government offices. On 27 March 2006, more than 12,000 troops marched in the new capital in its first public event: Sony VAIO VPCEB1NFX Battery a massive military parade to mark Armed Forces Day—which is the anniversary of then Burma's 1945 uprising against the Japanese occupation of Burma. Filming was restricted to the concrete parade ground which contains three enormous sculptures—depictions of the Myanmar kings Anawrahta, Bayinnaung and Alaungpaya, Sony VAIO VPCEB1NFX/B Battery who are considered the three most important kings in Myanmar history. The city was officially named Naypyidaw during these ceremonies.^[13] Rationale for moving the capital Naypyidaw is more centrally and strategically located than the old capital, Yangon. It is also a transportation hub located adjacent to the Shan, Kayah andKayin states. Sony VAIO VPCEB1NFX/L Battery It was felt that a stronger military and governmental presence nearby might provide stability to those chronically turbulent regions.^[14] The official explanation for moving the capital was that Yangon had become too congested and crowded with little room for future expansion of government offices.^[3] Sony VAIO VPCEB1NFX/P Battery Some Western diplomats speculated that the government were concerned with the possibility of foreign attack, as Yangon is on the coast and therefore vulnerable to an amphibious invasion.^[15][16] The popular belief among the Burmese is that a warning about foreign attack was delivered to the military chief by an astrologer.^[17] Sony VAIO VPCEB1NFX/W Battery Indian journalist Siddharth Varadarajan, who visited Naypyidaw in January 2007, described the vastness of the new capital as "the ultimate insurance against regime change, a masterpiece of urban planning designed to defeat any putative "colour revolution" – not by tanks and water cannons, but by geometry and cartography".^[18] Sony VAIO VPCEB1PFX Battery Geography Naypyidaw is located between the Bago Yoma and Shan Yoma mountain ranges. The city covers an area of 7,054.37 km² (2,723.71 sq mi) and has a population of 924,608, according to official figures.^[5] Chaungmagyi Dam is located a few kilometers to the north of Naypyidaw, while Ngalaik Dam is a few kilometers to the south. The Yezin Dam is farther away in the northeast. Sony VAIO VPCEB1PFX/B Battery Cityscape Naypyidaw is organized into a number of zones. As of 2011, the city is still lacking many of the facilities one would expect in a capital city. Residential zones The residential areas are carefully organized, and apartments are allotted according to rank and marital status.^[19] Sony VAIO VPCEB1QGX Battery The city currently has 1,200 four-story apartment blocks.^[20] The roofs of apartment buildings are color-coded by the jobs of their residents; Ministry of Health employees live in buildings with blue roofs and Ministry of Agriculture employees live in those with green roofs.^[19] High-ranking government officials live in mansions,^[21] Sony VAIO VPCEB1QGX/BI Battery of which there are about 50. Many of the city's residents, however, live in slums.^[22] Military zones High-ranking military officers and other key officials live 11 km (6.8 mi) away from regular government employees in a complex said to consist of tunnels and bunkers; Sony VAIO VPCEB1RGX Battery this area is restricted to the public.^[19] The city also hosts a military base, which is inaccessible to citizens or other personnel without written permission.^[7] Inside the military zone, the roads have eight lanes to allow small aircraft to land. Ministry zone The city's Ministry zone contains the headquarters of Burma's government ministries. Sony VAIO VPCEB1RGX/BI Battery All the ministry buildings are identical in appearance.^[23] A parliamentarycomplex consisting of 31 buildings^[24] and a 100-room presidential palace are also located there.^[19] The zone also contains the city hall building, which has many characteristics of Stalinist architecture, but with a Burmese-style roof. Sony VAIO VPCEB20 Battery Hotel zone The Hotel zone has a handful of villa-style hotels on the hilly outskirts of the city. There are currently twelve hotels located in or near Naypyidaw. Eight of these are located within the Naypyidaw Hotel Zone, and two are located in Laeway (Lewe) on the Yangon-Mandalay Road.^[25] Sony VAIO VPCEC20 Battery Shopping Naypyitaw Myoma Market is currently the commercial centre of Naypyidaw. Other shopping areas include Thapye Chaung Market and Junction Centre Naypyidaw. Built by the Shwe Taung Development company and completed in August 2009, Junction Centre is the capital's first privately operated shopping centre.^[5] Sony VAIO VPCEE20 Battery There are also local markets and a restaurant area. Ngalaik Lake Gardens is a small water park situated along the Ngalaik Dam, near Kyweshin Village on Ngalaik Lake (approximately seven miles from Naypyidaw). Opened in 2008, facilities at the Ngalaik Lake Gardens include water slides, natural resorts, lodging and a beach. The gardens are open to the public during Thingyan holidays. Sony VAIO VPCEF20 Battery Also opened in 2008, the 200-acre (0.81 km²) National Herbal Park has exhibits of plants having medicinal applications from all of the major regions of Burma. There are thousands of plants at the park, representing hundreds of different species.^[27] Behind the city hall, there is a park with a playground and water fountain complex, which hosts a musical light show every night.^[19] Sony VAIO VPCF112FX/B Battery The Naypyidaw Zoological Gardens opened in 2008 with some 420 animals and a climate-controlled penguin house. It is the largest zoo in Burma.^[28][29] The Naypyidaw Safari Parkofficially opened on 12 February 2011.^[30][31] Naypyidaw also boasts two golf courses (Nay Pyi Taw City Golf Course and Yaypyar Golf Course) and a gem museum.^[25] Sony VAIO VPCF115FG/B Battery Uppatasanti Pagoda Similar in size and shape to the Shwedagon Pagoda in Yangon, Uppatasanti Pagoda was completed in 2009.^[32] This new pagoda is named the Uppatasanti or "Peace Pagoda". The stake-driving ceremony for the pagoda was held on 12 November 2006.^[33] Sony VAIO VPCF116FGBI Battery The invitation card for the ceremony opened with a phrase "Rajahtani Naypyidaw (the royal capital where the king resides)".^[34] The pagoda is just 30 cm (12 in) shorter than the Shwedagon Pagoda.^[35] Uppatasanti translates roughly to "Protection against Calamity". It is the name of a sūtra prepared by a monk in the early 16th century. Sony VAIO VPCF117FJ/W Battery It is to be recited in time of crisis, especially in the face of foreign invasion.^[36] International zone The government has set aside 2 hectares (4.9 acres) of land each for foreign embassies and headquarters of United Nations missions.^[12] Sony VAIO VPCF117HG/BI Battery Entertainment The Myanmar Motion Picture Academy Awards are held annually in Naypyidaw given to the highest achievers in Myanmar cinema.^[37] There is a movie theater in the Junction Centre Mall in Naypyidaw. There are two others in nearby Pyinmana, and one in Tatkon Township.^[25] Sony VAIO VPCF118FJ/W Battery Administration Naypyidaw is a Union Territory under the direct administration of the President. Day-to-day functions are carried out on the President's behalf by the Naypyidaw Council led by a Chairperson. Sony VAIO VPCF119FC Battery The Chairperson and members of the Naypyidaw Council are appointed by the President and include both civilians and Armed Forces representatives.^[38] On 30 March 2011, President Thein Sein appointed Thein Nyunt as chairman of the Naypyidaw Council, along with 9 chair members: Sony VAIO VPCF119FC/BI Battery Than Htay, Colonel Myint Aung Than, Kan Chun, Paing Soe, Saw Hla, Myint Swe, Myint Shwe and Myo Nyunt.^[39] The Naypyidaw Union Territory consists of the city proper (downtown) and eight surrounding townships.^[5] Sony VAIO VPCF119FJ/BI Battery Downtown is further divided into four wards. Pyinmana, Lewe, and Tatkon townships were all formerly part of Yamethin District. Oathara Thiri, Dekkina Thiri, Poppha Thiri, Zapu Thiri, and Zeyar Thiri are all new townships currently under construction. Sony VAIO VPCF11AFJ Battery As of December 2009, most government ministry offices have been relocated to the administrative capital. Only the offices of ministries' directorates remain in Yangon. Sony VAIO VPCF11AGJ Battery,Sony VAIO VPCF11AHJ Battery,Sony VAIO VPCF11JFX/B Battery