LHIIIA:1 corresponds with the reign of Amenhotep III, who recorded with the heading ti-n3-y 'Danaans' (Mycenaean *Danawoi) the apparently equal cities d-y-q-e-i-s 'Thebes' (Mycenaean *Thegʷais) and m-w-k-i-n-u 'Mycenae' (Mycenaean *Mukanai). Sony VAIO PCG-8152M Battery
LHIIIA:1 also corresponds with the time of Attarsiya, the Man of Ahhiya, who alternately attacked and aided the rebel Madduwatta of Zippasla.[20] Ahhiya and its LHIIIA:2-B derivative, Ahhiyawa, can be linked to Greece only indirectly. The Hittites did not use any term approximating ti-n3-y; and they did not link Ahhiya, with these cities, or any other projected LBA names of known Greek cities. Sony VAIO PCG-61111M Battery
Also, no "Attarsiyas layer" of LHIIIA:1 has yet been found in western Anatolia. Still, Ahhiya must refer to a powerful people off the coast of Miletus, and Greece is the best available option at this time.
LHIIIA:1-period ti-n3-y / "Ahhiya" (and for that matter LHIIIA:1 Greece) did not feature otherwise in the inscriptions of the great kings of the Bronze Age, and certainly not as a coherent state. Sony PCG-71213M Battery
LHIIIA:2 ware was in the Uluburun shipwreck, and was in use at Miletus before Mursili II burned it ca 1320 BC. At this time, actual maritime trade was the specialty of the Cypriots and Phoenicians (so the presence of LH ware does not necessarily mean the presence of Mycenaeans). Sony PCG-71311M Battery
During the LHIIIA:2 period, kings of "Ahhiyawa" began to come to the attention of the Hittites, possibly as rulers of the "Achaean" states. In LHIIIB, they rose almost to the status of the Great Kings in Egypt and Assyria. LHIIIB is also the period of Linear B script at the mainland palaces; prior to then, Linear B was in use primarily in the Cyclades and Crete. Sony PCG-71312M Battery
The term "Submycenaean" was introduced in 1934 by T. C. Skeat.[21] but this is now regarded as a pottery style rather than a distinct period. Current opinion sees this style as the final stage of Late Helladic IIIC (and perhaps not even a very significant one).[22] Arne Furumark already termed it LHIIIC:2 in his monumental "Mycenaean Pottery: Sony PCG-71212M Battery
Analysis and Classification" (Stockholm 1941). This pottery is best known from the cemeteries of Kerameikos in Athens, the island of Salamis located in the Saronic Gulf off Attica, Skoubris in Lefkandi (Euboea), and the markets of Athens (Agora), Tiryns, and Mycenae.
Since the decipherment of the somewhat younger Linear B tabletsSony VAIO PCG-5J4M Battery
, it is thought that the people we call Mycenaeans might have been Achaeans or later subjected by them. No written source found at a Mycenaean site reveals what they called themselves. Upon a reading of the Iliad, where the residents of the Peloponnesus and adjacent islands are often called Achaeans, and taking into account mention of the Ahhiyawa[23] in Hittite sources from the Late Bronze Age, Sony VAIO PCG-5K1M Battery
the theory suggests itself that the Mycenaeans could possibly even be Achaeans.[24] The Tawagalawa Letter[25] written by an unnamed Hittite king of the empire period (14th–13th century BC) to the king of Ahhiyawa, treating him as an equal, suggests that Miletus (Millawanda) was under his control and refers to an earlier Sony VAIO PCG-5K2M Battery
"Wilusaepisode" involving hostility on the part of Ahhiyawa. Ahhiya(wa) has been identified with the Achaeans of the Trojan War and the city of Wilusa with the legendary city of Troy. However the exact relationship of the term Ahhiyawa to the Achaeans beyond a similarity in pronunciation is hotly debated by scholars, Sony VAIO PCG-5J5M Battery
even following the discovery that Mycenaean Linear B is an early form of Greek; the earlier debate was summed up in 1984 by Hans G. Güterbock of the Oriental Institute.
In the absence of direct sources, the general political organization of the Mycenaean world cannot be known with certainty. Sony VAIO PCG-5L2M Battery
In the tradition recorded centuries later in Homer, there were several states, the cities of the Iliad: Mycenae, Pylos, Orchomenos—which are known to archaeology—and perhaps also unconfirmed Sparta or Ithaca. Only the states of Pylos and Knossos are clearly attested in the Linear B texts. Sony VAIO PCG-6S4M Battery
Even so, it is impossible to know which was the dominant political center in Argolis, if there indeed was one. Possible candidates are Mycenae, Tiryns, Argos, Athens, Gla, and Iolcos. In Argolis, Mycenae seems to have enjoyed a hegemonial position for some time, while in Boiotia the rulers of the great fortification of Gla probably played a leading role. Sony VAIO PCG-6W1M Battery
The existence of a persistent unified state in Greece during the Mycanaean era is unlikely, especially due to lack of some important preconditions, such as an educated bureaucracy. Even the Minoan writing, imported from Crete, seems not to have been in widespread use in mainland Greece.[27] Sony VAIO PCG-6W2M Battery
Connection of the mention of a King of the Ahhiyawa in Hittite sources with the King of the Achaeans, the Mycenaean king Agamemnon of the Iliad, rests on the insecure foundations of an Ahhiyawa/Achaean identity; the very location of the Ahhiyawa kingdom remains a matter for debate; Sony VAIO PCG-7Z1M Battery
it has been suggested it may have been in Asia Minor, Rhodes or Peloponesus.
On a smaller scale, some uncertain information about the internal organization of the best-known kingdoms, Pylos and Knossos, can be gleaned from sources in Linear B.
The state appears to have been ruled by a king, the wa-na-ka (ϝάναξ / wánax), Sony VAIO PCG-8Y2M Battery
whose role was no doubt military, judicial, and religious. He is identifiable in the Homeric anax (ἄναξ) ("divine lord, sovereign, host"). Nine occurrences of the word in texts having to do with offerings suggest that the sovereigns of Pylos and Knossos were probably worshiped, but the term "for the king" is usually accompanied by another name. Sony VAIO PCG-8Y3M Battery
The term qa-si-re-u (cf. βασιλεύς / "basileús") which was later used in Greece for "king" , seems that was used for the "chief" of any group of people. ( Later Homer mentions many basilees inIthaca).
The land posessed by the king is usually the te-me-no (τέμενος / "témenos"). Sony VAIO PCG-8Z1M Battery
Other important land owners were the ra-wa-ke-ta ("lāwāgetas"), the leader of the people , and the te-re-ta ("telestai"), the officials. Lawagetas could be the leader of the army, but it is not confirmed by the inscriptions. The e-qe-ta("equetai"), literally, "the companions" or "followers", were a group of nobles (aristocrats), who followed the king in piece and war.[28] Sony VAIO PCG-8Z2M Battery
Besides the members of the court, there were other dignitaries in charge of local territorial administration. The kingdom of Pylos was divided into two great provinces, the de-we-ra ka-ra-i-ja, the near province, and the pe-ra-ko-ra-i-ja, the far province, around the town of re-u-ko-to-ro. Sony VAIO PCG-8Z3M Battery
The kingdom was further subdivided into sixteen districts. To manage these districts, the king named a ko-re-te (koreter, '"governor") and a po-ro-ko-re-te (prokoreter, "deputy"). Ada-mo-ko-ro (damokoros, "one who takes care of a damos"), was an official appointment probably in charge of the commune. Sony VAIO PCG-7112M Battery
The communal land was held at the hands of da-mo (literally, "people", cf. δῆμος / dễmos), or "plot holders" that probably expressed the voice of the district.[28] A council of elders was chaired, the ke-ro-si-ja (cf. γερουσία / gerousía). It is, incidentally, interesting to note that in Classical Greece, the basileus is the king, the monarch, Sony VGP-BPL15/B Battery
as if between the disintegration of Mycenaean society and the Classical Age no higher authority survived — de facto, and then, over the generations, de jure — than the communal official.
Mycenaean society appears to have been divided into two groups of free men: the king's entourage, who conducted administrative duties at the palace, and the people, da-mo (demos), Sony VGP-BPS15/B Battery
who lived at the commune level; these last were watched over by royal agents and were obliged to perform duties for and pay taxes to the palace.
Among those who evolved in the palace setting could be found well-to-do high officials who probably lived in the vast residences found in proximity to Mycenaean palaces, but also others, Sony VGP-BPL15/S Battery
tied by their work to the palace and not necessarily better off than the members of the da-mo: craftsmen, farmers, and perhaps merchants, to name a few. On a lower rung of the social ladder were found the slaves, do-e-ro (masculine) and do-e-ra (feminine) (cf. δούλος / doúlos). These are recorded in the texts as working either for the palace or for specific deities. Sony VGP-BPS15/S Battery
By the close of the Bronze Age (up to Late Helladic IIIC) contacts between the Aegean and its neighbours were well established. Mycenaean connection extended as far as southern Spain while Mycenaean pottery, for example, has been found in Sardinia, Southern Italy and Sicily, Sony VGP-BPS15 Battery
Asia Minor (amongst others at the settlement of Milawatta, modern Miletus,high-quality Palace style and Mycenaean ceramics have been recovered),Cyprus,] the Levant[and Egypt (especially Tell el Amarna). The circulation of goods and produce between centres are attested in Linear B records, though evidence of direct exchange is not. Sony VGP-BPL15 Battery
The economic organization of the Mycenaean kingdoms known from the texts seems to have been bipartite: a first group worked in the orbit of the palace, while another was self-employed. This reflects the societal structure seen above. But there was nothing to prevent a person working for the palace from running his own business. Sony VGN-P series Battery
The economy was supervised by scribes, who made note of incoming and outgoing products, assigned work, and were in charge of the distribution of rations. Thedu-ma-te seems to have been a sort of supervising quartermaster.
The territory of the Mycenaean kingdoms of Pylos and Knossos was divided into two parts: Sony VGN-P11Z/Q Battery
the ki-ti-me-na, the palace land, and the ke-ke-me-na, the communal land, cultivated by those the texts call ka-ma-na-e-we, undoubtedly the da-mo. The palace lands are those attested in the texts. One part makes up the te-me-noof the wa-ka-na and of the ra-wa-ge-ta, as seen above. Sony VGN-P11Z/R Battery
The other part was granted as a perquisite to members of the palace administration. These lands might be worked by slaves or by free men to whom the land had been leased.
Agricultural production in these kingdoms reflected the traditional "Mediterranean trilogy": grain, olives, and grapes. The grains cultivated were wheat andbarley. Sony VGN-P11Z/W Battery
Olive orchards were planted for the production of olive oil. This was not only a foodstuff, it was much used as a body oil and in perfume. Grapes were also cultivated, and several varieties of wine were produced. Besides these, flax was grown for linen clothing and sesame for its oil, and trees were planted, such as the fig. Sony VGN-P21S/W Battery
Livestock consisted primarily of sheep and goats. Cows and pigs were less common. Horses were kept chiefly for the pulling of chariots in battle.
The organization of artisanal labor is especially well known in the case of the palace. Sony VGN-P21Z/G Battery
The archives of Pylos show a specialized workforce, each worker belonging to a precise category and assigned to a specific place in the stages of production, notably in textiles.
The textile industry was one of the principal sectors of the Mycenaean economy. Sony VGN-P21Z/R Battery
The tablets of Knossos reveal the entire chain of production, from the flocks of sheep to the stocking of the palace storerooms with the finished product, through the shearing and the sorting of the wool in the workshops, as well as working conditions in those workshops. The palace of Pylos employed around 550 textile workers. Sony VGN-P29VN/Q Battery
At Knossos there were some 900. Fifteen different textile specialties have been identified. Next to wool, flax was the fiber most used.
The metallurgical industry is well attested at Pylos, where 400 workers were employed. It is known from the sources that metal was distributed to them, that they might carry out the required work: Sony VGP-BPS18 Battery
on average, 3.5 kilograms (7.7 lb) of bronze per smith. On the other hand, it is not known how they were paid — they are mysteriously absent in the ration distribution lists. At Knossos, several tablets testify to the making of swords, but with no mention of the true industry of metallurgy. Sony VGP-BPL18 Battery
The industry of perfumery is attested as well. Tablets describe the making of perfumed oil. It is known, too, from the archaeology that the workers attached to the palace included other kinds of artisans: goldsmiths, ivory-carvers, stonecarvers, and potters, for example. Olive oil was also made there. Certain areas of endeavor were turned toward export. Sony VGP-BPL18 Battery
Commerce remains curiously absent from the written sources. Thus, once the perfumed oil of Pylos has been stored in its little jars, the inscriptions do not reveal what became of it. Large stirrup jars that once contained oil have been found at Thebes, in Boeotia. They carry inscriptions in Linear B indicating their place of origin, western Crete. Sony VGP-BPS26 Battery
Sony VGP-BPL26 Battery
However, Cretan tablets say nothing about the exportation of oil. There is little information about the distribution route of textiles. It is known that the Minoans exported fine fabrics to Egypt; the Mycenaeans no doubt did the same. Indeed, it is probable that they borrowed knowledge of navigational matters from the Minoans, Sony VGP-BPS26A Battery
as is evidenced by the fact that their maritime commerce did not take off until after the founding of the Minoan civilization. Despite the lack of sources, it is probable that certain products, notably fabrics and oil, even metal objects, were meant to be sold outside the kingdom, for they were made in quantities too great to be consumed solely at home. Sony VGP-BPS22 Battery
Archaeology can, however, shed some light on the matter of the exportation of Mycenaean products outside of Greece. A number of vases have been found in the Aegean, in Anatolia, the Levant, Egypt and farther west in Sicily, even in Central Europe and as far away as Great Britain.[51] Sony VGP-BPL22 Battery
In a general way, the circulation of Mycenaean goods is traceable thanks to nodules, ancestors of the modern label. They consisted of small balls of clay, molded with the fingers around a lanyard (probably of leather) with which they were attached to the object. The nodule displayed the imprint of a seal and an ideogram representing the object. Sony VGP-BPS22A Battery
Other information was sometimes added: quality, origin, destination, etc.
Fifty-six nodules found at Thebes in 1982 carry an ideogram representing an ox. Thanks to them, the itinerary of these bovines can be reconstructed. From all over Boeotia, even from Euboea, they were taken to Thebes to be sacrificed. Sony VAIO PCG-3B1M Battery
The nodules served to prove that they were not stolen animals and to prove their origin. Once the animals arrived at their destination, the nodules were removed and gathered to create a book-keeping tablet. The nodules were used for all sorts of objects and explain how Mycenaean book-keeping could have been so rigorous. Sony VAIO PCG-3D1M Battery
The scribe did not have to count the objects themselves, he could base his tables upon the nodules.
The religious element is difficult to identify in Mycenaean civilization, especially as regards archaeological sites, where it remains problematic to pick out a place of worship with certainty. Sony VAIO PCG-3G2M Battery
John Chadwick points out [52] that at least six centuries lie between the earliest settling of proto-Greek speakers in Hellas and the earliest Linear B inscriptions, during which concepts and practices will have fused with indigenous beliefs, and—if cultural influences in material culture reflect influences in religious beliefs—with Minoan religion. Sony VAIO PCG-5R1M Battery
As for these texts, the few lists of offerings that give names of gods as recipients of goods reveal nothing about religious practices, and there is no surviving literature. John Chadwick rejected a confusion of Minoan and Mycenaean religion derived from archaeological correlations [53] Sony VAIO PCG-7162M Battery
and cautioned against "the attempt to uncover the prehistory of classical Greek religion by conjecturing its origins and guessing the meaning of its myths"[54] above all through treacherous etymologies.[55] Moses I. Finley [56] detected very few authentic Mycenaean reflections in the eighth-century Homeric world, in spite of its "Mycenaean" setting. Sony VAIO PCG-7181M Battery
However Nilsson based not on the uncertain etymologies but on religious elements, on the representations and on the general function of the gods, asserts that a lot of Minoan gods and religious conceptions were fused in the Mycenean religion. From the existing evidence it seems that the Mycenean religion was the mother of the Greek religion.[57] Sony VAIO PCG-41112M Battery
The Mycenaean pantheon already included many divinities that can be found in Classical Greece.[58]
Poseidon (Po-se-da-o) seems to have occupied a place of privilege. He was a chthonic deity, connected with the earthquakes (E-ne-si-da-o-ne: earth shaker), Sony VAIO PCG-7153M Battery
but it seems that he also represented the river spirit of the underworld as it often happens in Northern European folklore.[59] Also to be found are a collection of "Ladies" .On a number of tablets from Pylos, we find Po-ti-ni-ja (potnia: lady or mistress) without any accompanying word. Chadwick suggests that she was the mother-goddess of the Mycenaeans. Sony VAIO PCG-71312M Battery
It seems that she had an important shrine at the site Pakijanes near Pylos.[60] In an inscription at Knossos in Crete, we find the "mistress of the Labyrinth" (da-pu-ri-to po-ti-ni-ja), who calls to mind the myth of the Minoan labyrinth. The title was applied to many goddesses. In aLinear B tablet found at Pylos the "two queens and the king" (wa-na-ssoi, wa-na-ka-te) are mentioned, Sony VAIO PCG-7144M Battery
and John Chadwick relates these with the precursor goddesses of Demeter, Persephone and Poseidon.[60][61]
Demeter and her daughter Persephone, the goddesses of the Eleusinian mysteries, were usually referred to as "the two goddesses" or "the mistresses" in historical times.[62] Sony VAIO PCG-7191L Battery
Inscriptions in Linear B found at Pylos, mention the goddesses Pe-re-swa, who may be related with Persephone, and Si-to po-ti-ni-ja,[63]who is an agricultural goddess.[60]( A cult title of Demeter is "Sito" (σίτος: wheat) [64] The mysteries were established during the Mycenean period (1500 BC) at the city Eleusis[65] and it seems that they were based on a pre-Greek vegetation cult with Minoan elements.[66] Sony VAIO PCG-3C1M Battery
The cult was originally private and we don't have any information about it, but certain elements suggest that it could have similarities with the cult of Despoina ("the mistress")-the precursor goddess of Persephone- in isolated Arcadia that survived up to classical times. In the primitive Arcadian myth Poseidon, Sony VAIO PCG-3F1M Battery
the river spirit of the underworld appears as a horse (Poseidon Hippios). He pursues Demeter who becomes a mare and from the union she bears the fabulous horse Arion and a daughter, "Despoina", who obviously originally had the shape or the head of a mare. Pausanias mentions animal-headed statues of Demeter and of other gods in Arcadia. Sony VAIO PCG-3H1M Battery
At Lycosura on a marble relief appear figures of women with the heads of different animals, obviously in a ritual dance.[67] This could explain a Mycenaean fresco from 1400 BC that represents a procession with animal masks[68] and the procession of "daemons" in front of a goddess on a goldring from Tiryns.[69] Sony VAIO PCG-3J1M Battery
The Greek myth of the Minotaur probably originated from a similar "daemon".[70] In the cult of Despoina at Lycosura the two goddesses are closely connected with the springs and the animals, and especially with Poseidon and Artemis, the "mistress of the animals" who was the first nymph. Sony VAIO PCG-8141M Battery
The existence of the nymphs was bound to the trees or the waters which they haunted.Artemis appears as a daughter of Demeter in the Arcadian cults [71] and she became the most popular goddess in Greece. The earliest attested forms of the nameArtemis are the Mycenaean Greek a-te-mi-to and a-ti-mi-te, written in Linear B at Pylos.[72] Sony VAIO PCG-8161M Battery
Her precursor goddess (probably the Minoan Britomartis) is represented between two lions on a Minoan seal and also on some goldrings from Mycenae.[73] The representations are quite similar with these of "Artemis Orthia" at Sparta. In her temple at Sparta have been found wooden masks representing human faces, Sony VAIO PCG-3C2M Battery,Sony VAIO PCG-5N2M Battery,Sony VAIO PCG-5P1M Battery
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