Thursday, May 31, 2012

The United Nations

The United Nations (abbreviated UN in English, and ONU in its other official languages), is aninternational organization whose stated aims are facilitating cooperation in international law,international security, economic development, social progress, human rights, and achievement of world peace. Sony VAIO VPC CW2MFX/PU Battery
The UN was founded in 1945 after World War II to replace the League of Nations, to stop wars between countries, and to provide a platform for dialogue. It contains multiple subsidiary organizations to carry out its missions.
There are 193 member states, including every internationally recognised sovereign state in the world butVatican City. Sony VAIO VPC S11V9E/B Battery From its offices around the world, the UN and its specialized agencies decide on substantive and administrative issues in regular meetings held throughout the year. The organization has six principal organs: the General Assembly (the main deliberative assembly); the Security Council (for deciding certain resolutions for peace and security); Sony VAIO VPCB119GJ/B Battery the Economic and Social Council (for assisting in promoting international economic and social cooperation and development); the Secretariat (for providing studies, information, and facilities needed by the UN); the International Court of Justice (the primary judicial organ); and the United Nations Trusteeship Council (which is currently inactive). Sony VAIO VPCB11AGJ Battery Other prominent UN Systemagencies include the World Health Organization (WHO), the World Food Programme (WFP) and United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF). The UN's most prominent position is Secretary-General which has been held by Ban Ki-moon of South Korea since 2007. Sony VAIO VPCB11AVJ Battery The United Nations Headquarters resides in international territory in New York City, with further main offices at Geneva, Nairobi, and Vienna. The organization is financed from assessed and voluntary contributions from its member states, and has six official languages: Arabic, Chinese, English, French,Russian, and Spanish. Sony VAIO VPCB11V9E Battery The League of Nations failed to prevent World War II (1939–1945). Because of the widespread recognition that humankind could not afford a third world war, the United Nations was established to replace the flawed League of Nations in 1945 in order to maintain international peace and promote cooperation in solving international economic, social and humanitarian problems. Sony VAIO VPCB11X9E Battery The earliest concrete plan for a new world organization was begun under the aegis of the U.S. State Department in 1939. Franklin D. Roosevelt first coined the term 'United Nations' as a term to describe the Allied countries. The term was first officially used on 1 January 1942, when 26 governments signed the Atlantic Charter, pledging to continue the war effort. Sony VAIO VPCCW18FJ/P Battery On 25 April 1945, the UN Conference on International Organization began in San Francisco, attended by 50 governments and a number of non-governmental organizations involved in drafting the United Nations Charter. Sony VAIO VPCCW18FJ/R Battery The UN officially came into existence on 24 October 1945 upon ratification of the Charter by the five then-permanent members of the Security Council—France, theRepublic of China, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom and the United States—and by a majority of the other 46 signatories. Sony VAIO VPCCW18FJ/W Battery
The first meetings of the General Assembly, with 51 nations represented, and the Security Council, took place in Westminster Central Hall in London in January 1946.[4]
The organization was based at the Sperry Gyroscope Corporation's facility in Lake Success, New York, Sony VAIO VPCCW19FJ/W Battery
from 1946–1952, before moving to the United Nations Headquarters building in Manhattan upon its completion.
Since its creation, there has been controversy and criticism of the United Nations. In the United States, an early opponent of the UN was the John Birch Society, Sony VAIO VPCCW1AFJ Battery which began a "get US out of the UN" campaign in 1959, charging that the UN's aim was to establish a "One World Government." After the Second World War, the French Committee of National Liberation was late to be recognized by the US as the government of France, and so the country was initially excluded from the conferences that aimed at creating the new organization. Sony VAIO VPCCW1AHJ Battery
 Charles de Gaulle criticized the UN, famously calling it le machin ("the thing"), and was not convinced that a global security alliance would help maintain world peace, preferring direct defence treaties between countries.[5]
Legal basis of establishment
Shortly after its establishment the UN sought recognition as an international legal person due to the case of Reparations for Injuries Suffered in the Service of the United Nations[6] Sony VAIO VPCCW1S1E Battery with the advisory opinion delivered by the International Court of Justice (ICJ). The question arose whether the United Nations, as an organisation, had "the capacity to bring an international claim against a government regarding injuries that the organisation alleged had been caused by that state."[7] Sony VAIO VPCCW1S1E/B Battery The Court stated: the Organization was intended to exercise and enjoy, and is in fact exercising and enjoying functions and rights, which can only be explained on the basis of the possession of a large measure of international personality and the capacity to operate upon an international plane ... Sony VAIO VPCCW1S1E/L Battery Accordingly, the Court has come to the conclusion that the Organization is an international person. That is not the same thing as saying that it is a State, which it certainly is not, or that its legal personality and rights and duties are the same as those of a State ... Sony VAIO VPCCW1S1E/P Battery
What it does mean is that it is a subject of international law and capable of possessing international rights and duties, and that it has capacity to maintain its rights by bringing international claims.[8]
Organization
The United Nations' system is based on five principal organs (formerly six – the Trusteeship Council suspended operations in 1994, Sony VAIO VPCCW1S1E/R Battery
upon the independence ofPalau, the last remaining UN trustee territory);[9] the General Assembly, the Security Council, the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC), the Secretariat, and the International Court of Justice.
Four of the five principal organs are located at the main United Nations Headquarters located on international territory in New York City. Sony VAIO VPCCW1S1E/W Battery
 The International Court of Justice is located in The Hague, while other major agencies are based in the UN offices at Geneva,[11] Vienna,[12] and Nairobi.[13] Other UN institutions are located throughout the world.
The six official languages of the United Nations, used in intergovernmental meetings and documents, are Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian, and Spanish.[2] Sony VAIO VPCCW21FX/B Battery The Secretariat uses two working languages, English and French. Four of the official languages are the national languages of the permanent members of the Security Council (the United Kingdom and the United States share English as a de facto official language); Spanish and Arabic are the languages of the two largest blocs of official languages outside of the permanent members (Spanish being official in 20 countries, Arabic in 26). Sony VAIO VPCCW21FX/L Battery Five of the official languages were chosen when the UN was founded; Arabic was added later in 1973. The United Nations Editorial Manual states that the standard for English language documents isBritish usage and Oxford spelling, the Chinese writing standard is Simplified Chinese. Sony VAIO VPCCW21FX/R Battery
This replaced Traditional Chinese in 1971 when the UN representation of China was changed from the Republic of China to the People's Republic of China (see China and the United Nations for details).
General Assembly
The General Assembly is the main deliberative assembly of the United Nations. Sony VAIO VPCCW21FX/W Battery Composed of all United Nations member states, the assembly meets in regular yearly sessions under a president elected from among the member states. Over a two-week period at the start of each session, all members have the opportunity to address the assembly. Traditionally, the Secretary-General makes the first statement, followed by the president of the assembly. Sony VAIO VPCCW26EC Battery
The first session was convened on 10 January 1946 in the Westminster Central Hall in London and included representatives of 51 nations.
When the General Assembly votes on important questions, a two-thirds majority of those present and voting is required. Sony VAIO VPCCW26FX/B Battery Examples of important questions include: recommendations on peace and security; election of members to organs; admission, suspension, and expulsion of members; and, budgetary matters. All other questions are decided by majority vote. Each member country has one vote. Apart from approval of budgetary matters, resolutions are not binding on the members. Sony VAIO VPCCW28EC Battery
The Assembly may make recommendations on any matters within the scope of the UN, except matters of peace and security that are under Security Council consideration.
Conceivably, the one state, one vote power structure could enable states comprising just eight percent of the world population to pass a resolution by a two-thirds voteSony VAIO VPCCW28FJ/P Battery (see List of countries by population). However, as no more than recommendations, it is difficult to imagine a situation in which a recommendation by member states constituting just eight percent of the world's population, would be adhered to by the remaining ninety-two percent of the population, should they object. Sony VAIO VPCCW28FJ/R Battery
Security Council
The Security Council is charged with maintaining peace and security among countries. While other organs of the United Nations can only make 'recommendations' to member governments, Sony VAIO VPCCW28FJ/W Battery
the Security Council has the power to make binding decisions that member governments have agreed to carry out, under the terms of Charter Article 25.[14] The decisions of the Council are known as United Nations Security Council resolutions.
The Security Council is made up of 15 member states, Sony VAIO VPCCW29FJ/W Battery consisting of 5 permanent members–China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom and the United States–and 10 non-permanent members, currently Azerbaijan, India, South Africa, Colombia, Morocco,Togo, Germany, Pakistan, Guatemala, and Portugal.[15] Sony VAIO VPCCW2AFJ Battery The five permanent members hold veto power over substantive but not procedural resolutions allowing a permanent member to block adoption but not to block the debate of a resolution unacceptable to it. The ten temporary seats are held for two-year terms with member states voted in by the General Assembly on a regional basis. Sony VAIO VPCCW2AHJ Battery
The presidency of the Security Council is rotated alphabetically each month.[16]
Secretariat
The United Nations Secretariat is headed by the Secretary-General, assisted by a staff of international civil servants worldwide. It provides studies, information, and facilities needed by United Nations bodies for their meetings. It also carries out tasks as directed by the UN Security Council, the UN General Assembly, the UN Economic and Social Council, and other UN bodies. The United Nations Charter provides that the staff be chosen by application of the "highest standards of efficiency, competence, and integrity," with due regard for the importance of recruiting on a wide geographical basis. Sony VAIO VPCCW2S1E Battery The Charter provides that the staff shall not seek or receive instructions from any authority other than the UN. Each UN member country is enjoined to respect the international character of the Secretariat and not seek to influence its staff. The Secretary-General alone is responsible for staff selection. Sony VAIO VPCCW2S1E/B Battery The Secretary-General's duties include helping resolve international disputes, administering peacekeeping operations, organizing international conferences, gathering information on the implementation of Security Council decisions, and consulting with member governments regarding various initiatives. Sony VAIO VPCCW2S1E/L Battery Key Secretariat offices in this area include the Office of the Coordinator of Humanitarian Affairs and the Department of Peacekeeping Operations. The Secretary-General may bring to the attention of the Security Council any matter that, in his or her opinion, may threaten international peace and security. Sony VAIO VPCCW2S1E/P Battery
Secretary-General
The Secretariat is headed by the Secretary-General, who acts as the de facto spokesperson and leader of the UN. The current Secretary-General is Ban Ki-moon, who took over from Kofi Annan in 2007 and has been elected for a second term to conclude at the end of 2016. Sony VAIO VPCCW2S1E/R Battery Envisioned by Franklin D. Roosevelt as a "world moderator", the position is defined in the UN Charter as the organization's "chief administrative officer",[18] but the Charter also states that the Secretary-General can bring to the Security Council's attention "any matter which in his opinion may threaten the maintenance of international peace and security",[19] Sony VAIO VPCCW2S1E/W Battery
 giving the position greater scope for action on the world stage. The position has evolved into a dual role of an administrator of the UN organization, and a diplomat and mediator addressing disputes between member states and finding consensus to global issues.[20]
The Secretary-General is appointed by the General Assembly, Sony VAIO VPCCW2S5C CN1 Battery after being recommended by the Security Council, where the permanent members have veto power.[21] The General Assembly can theoretically override the Security Council's recommendation if a majority vote is not achieved, although this has not happened so far.[22] Sony VAIO VPCF112FX/B Battery There are no specific criteria for the post, but over the years, it has become accepted that the post shall be held for one or two terms of five years, that the post shall be appointed on the basis of geographical rotation, and that the Secretary-General shall not originate from one of the five permanent Security Council member states. Sony VAIO VPCF115FG/B Battery
International Court of Justice
The International Court of Justice (ICJ), located in The Hague, Netherlands, is the primary judicial organ of the United Nations. Established in 1945 by the United Nations Charter, the Court began work in 1946 as the successor to the Permanent Court of International Justice. Sony VAIO VPCF116FGBI Battery
The Statute of the International Court of Justice, similar to that of its predecessor, is the main constitutional document constituting and regulating the Court.[24]
It is based in the Peace Palace in The Hague, Netherlands, sharing the building with the Hague Academy of International Law, a private centre for the study of international law. Sony VAIO VPCF117FJ/W Battery Several of the Court's current judges are either alumni or former faculty members of the Academy. Its purpose is to adjudicate disputes among states. The court has heard cases related to war crimes, illegal state interference and ethnic cleansing, among others, and continues to hear cases.[25] Sony VAIO VPCF117HG/BI Battery
International Criminal Court
The International Criminal Court (ICC), it came into being on 1 July 2002 with the entering into force of the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Courtwhich was adopted on 17 July 1998. Sony VAIO VPCF118FJ/W Battery It is the first permanent international court charged with trying those who commit the most serious crimes under international law, including war crimes, genocide, crimes against humanity and the crime of aggression (although it cannot exercise jurisdiction over this crime prior to 2017). Sony VAIO VPCF119FC Battery The ICC is functionally independent of the UN in terms of personnel and financing, but some meetings of the ICC governing body, the Assembly of the States Parties to the Rome Statute, are held at the United Nations. There is a "relationship agreement" between the ICC and the UN that governs how the two institutions regard each other legally. Sony VAIO VPCF119FC/BI Battery
Economic and Social Council
The Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) assists the General Assembly in promoting international economic and social cooperation and development. ECOSOC has 54 members, all of which are elected by the General Assembly for a three-year term. Sony VAIO VPCF119FJ/BI Battery The president is elected for a one-year term and chosen amongst the small or middle powers represented on ECOSOC. ECOSOC meets once a year in July for a four-week session. Since 1998, it has held another meeting each April with finance ministers heading key committees of the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF). Sony VAIO VPCF11AFJ Battery Viewed separate from the specialized bodies it coordinates, ECOSOC's functions include information gathering, advising member nations, and making recommendations. In addition, ECOSOC is well-positioned to provide policy coherence and coordinate the overlapping functions of the UN’s subsidiary bodies and it is in these roles that it is most active. Sony VAIO VPCF11AGJ Battery
Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues
The United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues (UNPFII or PFII) is the UN's central coordinating body for matters relating to the concerns and rights of the world's indigenous peoples. Sony VAIO VPCF11AHJ Battery The forum, which evolved from the United Nations Working Group on Indigenous Populations, is an advisory body within the framework of the United Nations System that reports to the UN's Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC); however, it performs an advisory function in relation to other branches of the United Nations system. Sony VAIO VPCF11JFX/B Battery
It also works with other U.N. bodies as they address indigenous rights through Conventions such as the International Labour Organization’s Convention No.169 and the Convention on Biological Diversity (Article 8j).[27]
The Forum's mandate is to: Sony VAIO VPCF11M1E Battery
  • Provide expert advice and recommendations to the Economic and Social Council and to the various programmes, funds and agencies of the United Nations Systemthrough the Council;
  • Raise awareness and promote the integration and coordination of activities related to indigenous issues within the UN system;
Prepare and disseminate information on these issues. Sony VAIO VPCF11M1E/H Battery Since the passage of the Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples in 2007, much of the work of UNPFII has surrounded the compliance of U.N. member states to the standards of that declaration.[27] However, it performs many other international functions as well.[28] Sony VAIO VPCF11MFX/B Battery
Specialized institutions
Many UN organizations and agencies exist to work on particular issues. Some of the most well-known agencies are the International Atomic Energy Agency, the Food and Agriculture Organization, Sony VAIO VPCF11S1E Battery
UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization), the World Bank and the World Health Organization.
It is through these agencies that the UN performs most of its humanitarian work. Examples include mass vaccination programmes (through the WHO), Sony VAIO VPCF11S1E/B Battery
the avoidance of famine and malnutrition (through the work of the WFP) and the protection of vulnerable and displaced people (for example, by the UNHCR).
The United Nations Charter stipulates that each primary organ of the UN can establish various specialized agencies to fulfil its duties. Sony VAIO VPCF11Z1E Battery
Membership
With the addition of South Sudan on 14 July 2011,[29] there are currently 193 United Nations member states, including all fully recognized independent states[30] apart from Vatican City (the Holy See, which holds sovereignty over the state of Vatican City, is a permanent observer).[31] Sony VAIO VPCF11Z1E/BI Battery
The United Nations Charter outlines the rules for membership:
Membership in the United Nations is open to all other peace-loving states that accept the obligations contained in the present Charter and, in the judgment of the Organization, are able and willing to carry out these obligations. Sony VAIO VPCF11ZHJ Battery
  1. The admission of any such state to membership in the United Nations will be effected by a decision of the General Assembly upon the recommendation of the Security Council.
Group of 77
The Group of 77 at the UN is a loose coalition of developing nations, designed to promote its members' collective economic interests and create an enhanced joint negotiating capacity in the United Nations. Sony VAIO VPCF127HGBI Battery There were 77 founding members of the organization, but the organization has since expanded to 130 member countries. The group was founded on 15 June 1964 by the "Joint Declaration of the Seventy-Seven Countries" issued at the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development(UNCTAD). Sony VAIO VPCF137HG/BI Battery
The first major meeting was in Algiers in 1967, where the Charter of Algiers was adopted and the basis for permanent institutional structures was begun.
Peacekeeping and security
The UN, after approval by the Security Council, sends peacekeepers to regions where armed conflict has recently ceased or paused to enforce the terms of peace agreements and to discourage combatants from resuming hostilities. Sony VAIO VPCS111FM/S Battery Since the UN does not maintain its own military, peacekeeping forces are voluntarily provided by member states of the UN. The forces, also called the "Blue Helmets", who enforce UN accords, are awarded United Nations Medals, which are considered international decorations instead of military decorations. Sony VAIO VPCS115EC Battery
The peacekeeping force as a whole received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1988.[33]
The founders of the UN had envisaged that the organization would act to prevent conflicts between nations and make future wars impossible, however the outbreak of the Cold War made peacekeeping agreements extremely difficult because of the division of the world into hostile camps. Sony VAIO VPCS115FG Battery
Following the end of the Cold War, there were renewed calls for the UN to become the agency for achieving world peace, as several dozenongoing conflicts continue to rage around the globe.
A 2005 RAND Corp study found the UN to be successful in two out of three peacekeeping efforts. Sony VAIO VPCS117GG Battery It compared UN nation-building efforts to those of the United States, and found that seven out of eight UN cases are at peace, as compared with four out of eight US cases at peace.[34] Also in 2005, the Human Security Report documented a decline in the number of wars, genocides and human rights abuses since the end of the Cold War, Sony VAIO VPCS117GGB Battery and presented evidence, albeit circumstantial, that international activism—mostly spearheaded by the UN—has been the main cause of the decline in armed conflict since the end of the Cold War.[35] Situations where the UN has not only acted to keep the peace but also occasionally intervened include the Korean War (1950–1953), Sony VAIO VPCS118EC Battery
and the authorization of intervention in Iraq after the Persian Gulf War in 1990.
The UN has also drawn criticism for perceived failures. In many cases, member states have shown reluctance to achieve or enforce Security Council resolutions, Sony VAIO VPCS119FJ/B Battery an issue that stems from the UN's intergovernmental nature—seen by some as simply an association of 193 member states who must reach consensus, not an independent organization. Disagreements in the Security Council about military action and intervention are seen as having failed to prevent the 1994 Rwandan Genocide,[36] Sony VAIO VPCS119GC Battery failed to provide humanitarian aid and intervene in the Second Congo War, failed to intervene in the 1995 Srebrenica massacre and protect a refugee haven by authorizing peacekeepers to use force, failure to deliver food to starving people in Somalia, failure to implement provisions of Security Council resolutions related to the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, Sony VAIO VPCS11AFJ Battery and continuing failure to prevent genocide or provide assistance in Darfur. UN peacekeepers have also been accused of child rape, sexual abuse or soliciting prostitutes during various peacekeeping missions, starting in 2003, in the Congo,[37] Haiti,[38][39]Liberia,[40] Sudan and what is now South Sudan,[41] Burundi and Côte d'Ivoire.[42] Sony VAIO VPCS11AGJ Battery In 2004, former Israeli ambassador to the UN Dore Gold criticized what it called the organization's moral relativism in the face of (and occasional support of)[43] genocide and terrorism that occurred between the moral clarity of its founding period and the present day. Sony VAIO VPCS11AHJ Battery
Gold specifically mentions Yasser Arafat's 1988 invitation to address the General Assembly as a low point in the UN's history.[44]
In addition to peacekeeping, the UN is also active in encouraging disarmament. Sony VAIO VPCS11AVJ Battery Regulation of armaments was included in the writing of the United Nations Charterin 1945 and was envisioned as a way of limiting the use of human and economic resources for the creation of them.[45] However, the advent of nuclear weapons came only weeks after the signing of the charter and immediately halted concepts of arms limitation and disarmament, Sony VAIO VPCS11J7E/B Battery resulting in the first resolution of the first ever General Assembly meeting calling for specific proposals for "the elimination from national armaments of atomic weapons and of all other major weapons adaptable to mass destruction".[46] The principal forums for disarmament issues are the General Assembly First Committee, Sony VAIO VPCS11M1E/W Battery the UN Disarmament Commission, and theConference on Disarmament, and considerations have been made of the merits of a ban on testing nuclear weapons, outer space arms control, the banning ofchemical weapons and land mines, nuclear and conventional disarmament, nuclear-weapon-free zones, the reduction of military budgets, and measures to strengtheninternational security. Sony VAIO VPCS11V9E Battery
The UN is one of the official supporters of the World Security Forum, a major international conference on the effects of global catastrophes and disasters, which took place in the United Arab Emirates in October 2008.
Human rights and humanitarian assistance
The pursuit of human rights was a central reason for creating the UN. Sony VAIO VPCS11V9E/B Battery World War II atrocities and genocide led to a ready consensus that the new organization must work to prevent any similar tragedies in the future. An early objective was creating a legal framework for considering and acting on complaints about human rights violations. The UN Charter obliges all member nations to promote "universal respect for, and observance of, Sony VAIO VPCS11X9E/B Battery human rights" and to take "joint and separate action" to that end. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, though not legally binding, was adopted by the General Assembly in 1948 as a common standard of achievement for all. The Assembly regularly takes up human rights issues. Sony VAIO VPCS123FGB Battery The UN and its agencies are central in upholding and implementing the principles enshrined in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. A case in point is support by the UN for countries in transition to democracy. Technical assistance in providing free and fair elections, improving judicial structures, Sony VAIO VPCS125EC Battery drafting constitutions, training human rights officials, and transforming armed movements into political parties have contributed significantly to democratization worldwide. The UN has helped run elections in countries with little or no democratic history, including recently in Afghanistan and East Timor. Sony VAIO VPCS128EC Battery The UN is also a forum to support the right of women to participate fully in the political, economic, and social life of their countries. The UN contributes to raising consciousness of the concept of human rights through its covenants and its attention to specific abuses through its General Assembly, Security Council resolutions, or International Court of Justicerulings. Sony VAIO VPCS129GC Battery The purpose of the United Nations Human Rights Council, established in 2006,[47] is to address human rights violations. The Council is the successor to theUnited Nations Commission on Human Rights, which was often criticized for the high-profile positions it gave to member states that did not guarantee the human rights of their own citizens.[ Sony VAIO VPCS12C7E/B Battery The council has 47 members distributed by region, which each serve three-year terms, and may not serve three consecutive terms.[49] A candidate to the body must be approved by a majority of the General Assembly. In addition, the council has strict rules for membership, including a universal human rights review. Sony VAIO VPCS12L9E/B Battery
While some members with questionable human rights records have been elected, it is fewer than before with the increased focus on each member state's human rights record.[50]
The rights of some 370 million indigenous peoples around the world are also a focus for the UN, Sony VAIO VPCS12V9E/B Battery with a Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples being approved by the General Assembly in 2007.[51] The declaration outlines the individual and collective rights to culture, language, education, identity, employment and health, thereby addressing post-colonial issues that had confronted indigenous peoples for centuries. Sony VAIO VPCY115FGS Battery The declaration aims to maintain, strengthen and encourage the growth of indigenous institutions, cultures and traditions. It also prohibits discrimination against indigenous peoples and promotes their active participation in matters that concern their past, present and future.[51] Sony VAIO VPCY115FX/BI Battery The United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues is the UN's central coordinating body for matters relating to the concerns and rights of the world's indigenous peoples. The forum is an advisory body within the framework of the United Nations System that reports to the UN's Economic and Social Council. Sony VAIO VPCY115FXBI Battery In conjunction with other organizations such as the Red Cross, the UN provides food, drinking water, shelter and other humanitarian services to populaces suffering from famine, displaced by war, or afflicted by other disasters. Major humanitarian branches of the UN are the World Food Programme Sony VAIO VPCY118EC Battery
 (which helps feed more than 100 million people a year in 80 countries), the office of the High Commissioner for Refugees with projects in over 116 countries, as well as peacekeeping projects in over 24 countries.
Social and economic development
The UN is involved in supporting development, e.g. by the formulation of the Millennium Development Goals. Sony VAIO VPCY118GX/BI Battery TheUN Development Programme (UNDP) is the largest multilateral source of grant technical assistance in the world. Organizations like the World Health Organization (WHO), UNAIDS, and The Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria are leading institutions in the battle against diseases around the world, especially in poor countries. Sony VAIO VPCY119FJ/S Battery
The UN Population Fund is a major provider of reproductive services. 32 UN agencies performing tasks on development are coordinating their efforts through the United Nations Development Group or UNDG.[52]
The UN also promotes human development through some related agencies, particularly the UNDP.[53] Sony VAIO VPCY11AFJ Battery The World Bank Group and International Monetary Fund (IMF), for example, are independent, specialized agencies and observers within the UN framework, according to a 1947 agreement. They were initially formed as separate from the UN through the Bretton Woods Agreement in 1944.[54] Sony VAIO VPCY11AGJ Battery
The UNDP annually publishes the Human Development Index (HDI), a comparative measure ranking countries by poverty, literacy, education, life expectancy, and other factors.[55]
The Millennium Development Goals (declared in the United Nations Millennium Declaration, Sony VAIO VPCY11AHJ Battery
signed in September 2000) are eight goals that all of the then 192 United Nations member states have agreed to try to achieve by the year 2015.[56]
Mandates
From time to time, the different bodies of the United Nations pass resolutions that contain operating paragraphs that begin with the words "requests", Sony VAIO VPCY11AVJ Battery "calls upon", or "encourages", which the Secretary-General interprets as a mandate to set up a temporary organization or do something. These mandates can be as little as researching and publishing a written report, or mounting a full-scale peacekeeping operation (usually the exclusive domain of the Security Council). Sony VAIO VPCY11M1E/S Battery Although the specialized institutions, such as the WHO, were originally set up by this means, they are not the same as mandates because they are permanent organizations that exist independently of the UN with their own membership structure. One could say that original mandate was simply to cover the process of setting up the institution, Sony VAIO VPCY11S1E Battery
and has therefore long expired. Most mandates expire after a limited period and require renewal from the body, which set them up.
One of the outcomes of the 2005 World Summit was a mandate (labelled id 17171) for the Secretary-General to Sony VAIO VPCY11V9E/S Battery "review all mandates older than five years originating from resolutions of the General Assembly and other organs". To facilitate this review and to finally bring coherence to the organization, the Secretariat has produced an on-line registry of mandates to draw together the reports relating to each one and create an overall picture.[57] Sony VAIO VPCY218EC/BI Battery
Greening the Blue
On 5 June 2007, World Environment Day, Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon made public his ambition to make the United Nations more efficient in its operations: “I would like to see our renovated Headquarters complex eventually become a globally acclaimed model of efficient use of energy and resources. Sony VAIO VPCY218EC/G Battery
Beyond New York, the initiative should include the other United Nations headquarters and offices around the globe.” The UN's progress towards achieving this goal is communicated through the initiative Greening the Blue (see external links below).
Other
Over the lifetime of the UN, over 80 colonies have attained independence. Sony VAIO VPCY218EC/L Battery The General Assembly adopted the Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples in 1960 with no votes against but abstentions from all major colonial powers. Through the UN Committee on Decolonization,[59]created in 1962, the UN has focused considerable attention on decolonization. Sony VAIO VPCY218EC/P Battery It has also supported the new states that have arisen as a result of self-determination initiatives. The committee has overseen the decolonization of every country larger than 20,000 km² and removed them from the United Nations list of Non-Self-Governing Territories, Sony VAIO VPCY21S1E/L Battery
besides Western Sahara, a country larger than the UK only relinquished by Spain in 1975.
The UN declares and coordinates international observances, periods of time to observe some issue of international interest or concern. Sony VAIO VPCY21S1E/P Battery Using the symbolism of the UN, a specially designed logo for the year, and the infrastructure of the United Nations System, various days and years have become catalysts to advancing key issues of concern on a global scale. For example, World Tuberculosis Day, Earth Day and International Year of Deserts and Desertification. Sony VAIO VPCY21S1E/SI Battery
Funding
The UN is financed from assessed and voluntary contributions from member states. The General Assembly approves the regular budget and determines the assessment for each member. Sony VAIO VPCCW2S5C CN1 Battery
This is broadly based on the relative capacity of each country to pay, as measured by their gross national income (GNI), with adjustments for external debt and low per capita income.[61]
The Assembly has established the principle that the UN should not be overly dependent on any one member to finance its operations. Sony VAIO VPCEA20 Battery Thus, there is a 'ceiling' rate, setting the maximum amount any member is assessed for the regular budget. In December 2000, the Assembly revised the scale of assessments to reflect current global circumstances. As part of that revision, the regular budget ceiling was reduced from 25% to 22%.Sony VAIO VPCEB10 Battery
For the least developed countries (LDCs), a ceiling rate of 0.01% is applied.[61] In addition to the ceiling rates, the minimum amount assessed to any member nation (or 'floor' rate) is set at 0.001% of the UN budget. Refer to the table for major contributors.
A large share of UN expenditures addresses the core UN mission of peace and security. Sony VAIO VPCEB11FM Battery The peacekeeping budget for the 2005–2006 fiscal year was approximately US$5 billion, €2.5 billion (compared to approximately US$1.5 billion, €995 million for the UN core budget over the same period), with some 70,000 troops deployed in 17 missions around the world.[62] Sony VAIO VPCEB11FM/BI Battery UN peace operations are funded by assessments, using a formula derived from the regular funding scale, but including a weighted surcharge for the five permanent Security Council members, who must approve all peacekeeping operations. This surcharge serves to offset discounted peacekeeping assessment rates for less developed countries. Sony VAIO VPCEB11FM/T Battery As of 1 January 2011, the top 10 providers of assessed financial contributions to United Nations peacekeeping operations were: the United States, Japan, the United Kingdom, Germany, France, Italy, China, Canada, Spain and the Republic of Korea.[63] Sony VAIO VPCEB11FM/WI Battery Special UN programmes not included in the regular budget (such as UNICEF, the WFP and UNDP) are financed by voluntary contributions from other member governments. Most of this is financial contributions, but some is in the form of agricultural commodities donated for afflicted populations. Sony VAIO VPCEB11FX Battery Since their funding is voluntary, many of these agencies suffer severe shortages during economic recessions. In July 2009, the World Food Programme reported that it has been forced to cut services because of insufficient funding.[64] It has received barely a quarter of the total it needed for the 09/10 financial year. Sony VAIO VPCEB11FX/BI Battery
Personnel policy
The UN and its agencies are immune to the laws of the countries where they operate, safeguarding UN's impartiality with regard to the host and member countries.[65] Sony VAIO VPCEB11FX/T Battery Despite their independence in matters of human resources policy, the UN and its agencies voluntarily apply the laws of member states regarding same-sex marriages, allowing decisions about the status of employees in a same-sex partnership to be based on nationality. Sony VAIO VPCEB11FX/WI Battery The UN and its agencies recognize same-sex marriages only if the employees are citizens of countries that recognize the marriage. This practice is not specific to the recognition of same-sex marriage but reflects a common practice of the UN for a number of human resources matters. Sony VAIO VPCEB11GX Battery
It has to be noted though that some agencies provide limited benefits to domestic partners of their staff and that some agencies do not recognise same-sex marriage or domestic partnership of their staff.
Reform
Since its founding, there have been many calls for reform of the United Nations, Sony VAIO VPCEB11GX/BI Battery although little consensus on how to do so. Some want the UN to play a greater or more effective role in world affairs, while others want its role reduced to humanitarian work.[66]There have also been numerous calls for the UN Security Council's membership to be increased, Sony VAIO VPCEB11GX/T Battery
for different ways of electing the UN's Secretary-General, and for a United Nations Parliamentary Assembly.
The UN has also been accused of bureaucratic inefficiency and waste. During the 1990s, the United States withheld dues citing inefficiency, Sony VAIO VPCEB11GX/WI Battery
and only started repayment on the condition that a major reforms initiative was introduced. In 1994, the Office of Internal Oversight Services (OIOS) was established by the General Assembly to serve as an efficiency watchdog.[67]
An official reform programme was begun by Kofi Annan in 1997. Sony VAIO VPCEB12FX Battery Reforms mentioned include changing the permanent membership of the Security Council (which currently reflects the power relations of 1945), making the bureaucracy more transparent, accountable and efficient, making the UN more democratic, and imposing an international tariff on arms manufacturers worldwide. Sony VAIO VPCEB12FX/BI Battery In September 2005, the UN convened a World Summit that brought together the heads of most member states, calling the summit "a once-in-a-generation opportunity to take bold decisions in the areas of development, security, human rights and reform of the United Nations." Sony VAIO VPCEB12FX/BIC Battery Kofi Annan had proposed that the summit agree on a global "grand bargain" to reform the UN, renewing the organization's focus on peace, security, human rights and development, and to make it better equipped at facing 21st century issues. The World Summit Outcome Document delineated the conclusions of the meeting, including: Sony VAIO VPCEB12FX/T Battery the creation of a Peacebuilding Commission, to help countries emerging from conflict; a Human Rights Council and a democracy fund; a clear and unambiguous condemnation of terrorism "in all its forms and manifestations"; agreements to devote more resources to the Office of Internal Oversight Services; Sony VAIO VPCEB14FX Battery agreements to spend billions more on achieving the Millennium Development Goals; the dissolution of the Trusteeship Council, because of the completion of its mission; and, the agreement that individual states, with the assistance of the international community, have the "responsibility to protect" populations from genocide, Sony VAIO VPCEB14FX/BI Battery war crimes, ethnic cleansing and crimes against humanity- with the understanding that the international community is prepared to act "collectively" in a “timely and decisive manner” to protect vulnerable civilians should a state "manifestly fail" in fulfilling its responsibility.[69] Sony VAIO VPCEB14FX/T Battery The Office of Internal Oversight Services is being restructured to better define its scope and mandate, and will receive more resources. In addition, to improve the oversight and auditing capabilities of the General Assembly, an Independent Audit Advisory Committee (IAAC) is being created. Sony VAIO VPCEB14FX/WI Battery In June 2007, the Fifth Committee created a draft resolution for the terms of reference of this committee.[70][71] An ethics office was established in 2006, responsible for administering new financial disclosure and whistleblower protection policies. Working with the OIOS, the ethics office also plans to implement a policy to avoid fraud and corruption.[72] Sony VAIO VPCEB15FM Battery The Secretariat is in the process of reviewing all UN mandates that are more than five years old. The review is intended to determine which duplicative or unnecessary programmes should be eliminated. Not all member states agree on which of the over 7000 mandates should be reviewed. Sony VAIO VPCEB15FM/BI Battery The dispute centres on whether mandates that have been renewed should be examined.[73] Indeed, the obstacles identified – in particular, the lack of information on the resource implications of each mandate – constituted sufficient justification for the General Assembly to discontinue the mandate review in September 2008. Sony VAIO VPCEB15FM/T Battery In the meantime, the General Assembly launched a number of new loosely related reform initiatives in April 2007, covering international environmental governance, ‘Delivering as One’ at the country level to enhance the consolidation of UN programme activities and a unified gender organization. Sony VAIO VPCEB15FM/WI Battery Whereas little was achieved on the first two issues, the General Assembly approved in September 2010 the establishment of ‘UN Women’ as the new UN organization for gender equality and the empowerment of women. Sony VAIO VPCEB15FX Battery
UN Women was established by unifying the resources and mandates of four small entities for greater impact and its first head is Ms. Michelle Bachelet, former President of Chile.
Collective security can be understood as a security arrangement, regional or global, in which each state in the system accepts that the security of one is the concern of all, Sony VAIO VPCEB15FX/BI Battery and agrees to join in a collective response to threats to, and breaches of, the peace. Collective security is more ambitious than systems ofalliance security or collective defence in that it seeks to encompass the totality of states within a region or indeed globally, and to address a wide range of possible threats. Sony VAIO VPCEB15FX/T Battery
While collective security is an idea with a long history, its implementation in practice has proved problematic. Several prerequisites have to be met for it to have a chance of working.
Early mentions
Collective security, as suggested by many, is one of the most promising approaches for peace and a valuable device for power management on an international scale. Sony VAIO VPCEB15FX/WI Battery
Cardinal Richelieu proposed a scheme for collective security in 1629, which was partially reflected in the 1648 Peace of Westphalia. In the eighteenth century many proposals were made for collective security arrangements, especially in Europe.
The concept of a peaceful community of nations was outlined in 1795 in Immanuel Kant’s Perpetual Peace: Sony VAIO VPCEB16FX Battery A Philosophical Sketch.[1] Kant outlined the idea of a league of nations that would control conflict and promote peace between states.[2] However, he argues for the establishment of a peaceful world community not in a sense that there be a global government but in the hope that each state would declare itself as a free Sony VAIO VPCEB16FX/B Battery state that respects its citizens and welcomes foreign visitors as fellow rational beings. His key argument is that a union of free states would promote peaceful society worldwide: therefore, in his view, there can be a perpetual peace shaped by the international community rather than by a world government.[3] Sony VAIO VPCEB16FX/G Battery
Bahá'u'lláh (1817–1892), the founder of the Bahá'í Faith, prescribed collective security as a means to establish world peace in his writings during the 19th century:
The time must come when the imperative necessity for the holding of a vast, an all-embracing assemblage of men will be universally realized. Sony VAIO VPCEB16FX/L Battery The rulers and kings of the earth must needs attend it, and, participating in its deliberations, must consider such ways and means as will lay the foundations of the world's Great Peace amongst men. Such a peace demandeth that the Great Powers should resolve, for the sake of the tranquility of the peoples of the earth, to be fully reconciled among themselves. Sony VAIO VPCEB16FX/P Battery Should any king take up arms against another, all should unitedly arise and prevent him. If this be done, the nations of the world will no longer require any armaments, except for the purpose of preserving the security of their realms and of maintaining internal order within their territories. Sony VAIO VPCEB16FX/W Battery
This will ensure the peace and composure of every people, government and nation.
International co-operation to promote collective security originated in the Concert of Europe that developed after the Napoleonic Wars in the nineteenth century in an attempt to maintain the status quo between European states and so avoid war. Sony VAIO VPCEB17FX Battery This period also saw the development of international law with the firstGeneva Conventions establishing laws about humanitarian relief during war and the international Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907 governing rules of war and the peaceful settlement of international disputes. Sony VAIO VPCEB17FX/B Battery The forerunner of the League of Nations, the Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU), was formed by peace activists William Randal Cremer and Frédéric Passy in 1889. The organization was international in scope with a third of the members of parliament, in the 24 countries with parliaments, serving as members of the IPU by 1914. Sony VAIO VPCEB17FX/G Battery Its aims were to encourage governments to solve international disputes by peaceful means and arbitration and annual conferences were held to help governments refine the process of international arbitration. The IPU's structure consisted of a Council headed by a President which would later be reflected in the structure of the League. Sony VAIO VPCEB17FX/L Battery At the start of the twentieth century two power blocs emerged through alliances between the European Great Powers. It was these alliances that came into effect at the start of the First World War in 1914, drawing all the major European powers into the war. Sony VAIO VPCEB17FX/P Battery This was the first major war in Europe between industrializedcountries and the first time in Western Europe the results of industrialization (for example mass production) had been dedicated to war. Sony VAIO VPCEB17FX/W Battery
The result of thisindustrial warfare was an unprecedented casualty level with eight and a half million members of armed services dead, an estimated 21 million wounded, and approximately 10 million civilian deaths.[10][11]
By the time the fighting ended in November 1918, the war had had a profound impact, Sony VAIO VPCEB190X Battery affecting the social, political and economic systems of Europe and inflicting psychological and physical damage on the continent.[12] Anti-war sentiment rose across the world; the First World War was described as "the war to end all wars",[13][14] and its possible causes were vigorously investigated. Sony VAIO VPCEB19FX Battery The causes identified included arms races, alliances, secret diplomacy, and the freedom of sovereign states to enter into war for their own benefit. The perceived remedies to these were seen as the creation of an international organization whose aim was to prevent future war through disarmament, Sony VAIO VPCEB19GX Battery
open diplomacy, international co-operation, restrictions on the right to wage wars, and penalties that made war unattractive to nations.[15]
Collective security in the League of Nations
After World War I, the first large scale attempt to provide collective security in modern times was the establishment of the League of Nations in 1919-20. Sony VAIO VPCEB1AFX Battery The provisions of the League of Nations Covenant represented a weak system for decision-making and for collective action. An example of the failure of the League of Nations' collective security is the Manchurian Crisis, when Japan occupied part of China (which was a League member). Sony VAIO VPCEB1AFX/B Battery After the invasion, members of the League passed a resolution calling for Japan to withdraw or face severe penalties. Given that every nation on the League of Nations council had veto power, Japan promptly vetoed the resolution, severely limiting the LN's ability to respond. Sony VAIO VPCEB1AGX Battery
After two years of deliberation, the League passed a resolution condemning the invasion without committing the League's members to any action against it. The Japanese replied by quitting the League.
A similar process occurred in 1935, when Italy invaded Ethiopia. Sony VAIO VPCEB1AGX/BI Battery Sanctions were passed, but Italy would have vetoed any stronger resolution. Additionally, Britain and France sought to court Italy's government as a potential deterrent to Hitler, given that Mussolini was not yet in what would become the Axis alliance of World War II. Thus, neither enforced any serious sanctions against the Italian government. Sony VAIO VPCEB1BGX Battery Additionally, in this case and with the Japanese invasion of Manchuria, the absence of the USA from the League of Nations deprived the LN of another major power that could have used economic leverage against either of the aggressor states. Sony VAIO VPCEB1BGX/BI Battery Inaction by the League subjected it to criticisms that it was weak and concerned more with European issues (most leading members were European), and did not deter Hitler from his plans to dominate Europe. The Ethiopian monarch Emperor Haile Selassie I continued to support collective security though, Sony VAIO VPCEB1CGX Battery
having assessed that impotence lay not in the principle but in its covenantors commitment to honor its tenets.
One active and articulate exponent of collective security during the immediate pre-war years was the Soviet foreign minister Maxim Litvinov. Sony VAIO VPCEB1CGX/BI Battery However, there are grounds for doubt about the depth of Soviet commitment to this principle, as well as that of Western powers. After the Munich Agreement in September 1938 and the passivity of outside powers in the face of German occupation of the remainder of Czechoslovakia in March 1939Sony VAIO VPCEB1DGX Battery it was shown that the Western Powers were not prepared to engage in collective security against aggression by the Axis Powers together with the Soviet Union, Soviet foreign policy was revised and Litvinov was replaced as foreign minister in early May 1939, Sony VAIO VPCEB1DGX/BI Battery in order to facilitate the negotiations that led to the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact with Germany, signed by Litvinov's successor, Vyacheslav Molotov, on August 23 of that year. The war in Europe broke out a week later, with the German invasion of Poland on September 1. Sony VAIO VPCEB1EGX Battery
Recent events
The 1945 United Nations Charter, although containing stronger provisions for decision-making and collective military action than those of the League of Nations Covenant, does not represent a complete system of collective security, Sony VAIO VPCEB1EGX/BI Battery
but rather a balance between collective action on the one hand and continued operation of the states system (including the continued special roles of great powers) on the other.
Cited examples of the limitations of collective security include the Falklands War. Sony VAIO VPCEB1FGX Battery When Argentina invaded the islands, which are overseas territories of theUnited Kingdom, many UN members stayed out of the issue, as it did not directly concern them. There was also a controversy about the United States role in that conflict due their obligations as an Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance (the "Rio Pact") member. Sony VAIO VPCEB1FGX/BI Battery
However, many politicians who view the system as having faults also believe it remains a useful tool for keeping international peace.
The role of the UN and collective security in general is also evolving given the rise of internal state conflicts since the end of WWII, Sony VAIO VPCEB1GGX Battery there have been 111 military conflicts world wide, but only 9 of which have involved two or more states going to war with one another. The remainder have either been internal civil wars or civil wars where other nations intervened in some manner. Sony VAIO VPCEB1GGX/BI Battery This means that collective security may have to evolve towards providing a means to ensure stability and a fair international resolution to those internal conflicts. Whether this will involve more powerful peacekeeping forces or a larger role for the UN diplomatically will likely be judged from a case to case basis. Sony VAIO VPCEB1HGX Battery
Theory
Collective security can be understood as a security arrangement in which all states cooperate collectively to provide security for all by the actions of all against any states within the groups which might challenge the existing order by using force. Sony VAIO VPCEB1HGX/BI Battery
This contrasts with self-help strategies of engaging in war for purely immediate national interest. While collective security is possible, several prerequisites have to be met for it to work.
Sovereign nations eager to maintain the status quo, willingly cooperate, Sony VAIO VPCEB1JFX Battery accepting a degree of vulnerability and in some cases of minor nations, also accede to the interests of the chief contributing nations organising the collective security. Collective Security is achieved by setting up an international cooperative organisation, Sony VAIO VPCEB1JFX/B Battery under the auspices of international law and this gives rise to a form of international collective governance, albeit limited in scope and effectiveness. The collective security organisation then becomes an arena for diplomacy, balance of power and exercise of soft power. The use of hard power by states, unless legitimised by the Collective Security organisation, Sony VAIO VPCEB1JFX/G Battery is considered illegitimate, reprehensible and needing remediation of some kind. The collective security organisation not only gives cheaper security, but also may be the only practicable means of security for smaller nations against more powerful threatening neighbours without the need of joining the camp of the nations balancing their neighbours. Sony VAIO VPCEB1JFX/L Battery The concept of "collective security" forwarded by men such as Michael Joseph Savage, Martin Wight, Immanuel Kant, and Woodrow Wilson, are deemed to apply interests in security in a broad manner, to "avoid grouping powers into opposing camps, and refusing to draw dividing lines that would leave anyone out."[16] Sony VAIO VPCEB1JFX/P Battery The term "collective security" has also been cited as a principle of the United Nations, and the League of Nations before that. By employing a system of collective security, the UN hopes to dissuade any member state from acting in a manner likely to threaten peace, thereby avoiding any conflict. Sony VAIO VPCEB1JFX/W Battery
Basic assumptions
Organski (1960) lists five basic assumptions underlying the theory of collective security :[17]
In an armed conflict, member nation-states will be able to agree on which nation is the aggressor. Sony VAIO VPCEB1KGX Battery
  • All member nation-states are equally committed to contain and constrain the aggression, irrespective of its source or origin.
All member nation-states have identical freedom of action and ability to join in proceedings against the aggressor. Sony VAIO VPCEB1KGX/B Battery
  • The cumulative power of the cooperating members of the alliance for collective security will be adequate and sufficient to overpower the might of the aggressor.
In the light of the threat posed by the collective might of the nations of a collective security coalition, the aggressor nation will modify its policies, or if unwilling to do so, will be defeated. Sony VAIO VPCEB1KGX/W Battery
Prerequisites
Morgenthau (1948) states that three prerequisites must be met for collective security to successfully prevent war : Sony VAIO VPCEB1LFX Battery The collective security system must be able to assemble military force in strength greatly in excess to that assembled by the aggressor(s) thereby deterring the aggressor(s) from attempting to change the world order defended by the collective security system. Sony VAIO VPCEB1LFX/BI Battery
  • Those nations, whose combined strength would be used for deterrence as mentioned in the first prerequisite, should have identical beliefs about the security of the world order that the collective is defending.
Nations must be willing to subordinate their conflicting interests to the common good defined in terms of the common defence of all member-states. Sony VAIO VPCEB1LFX/WI Battery
Collective defense
Collective defense (also collective defence) is an arrangement, usually formalized by a treaty and an organization, among participant states that commit support in defense of a member state if it is attacked by another state outside the organization. Sony VAIO VPCEB1MFX Battery NATO is the best known collective defense organization. Its now famous Article V calls on (but does not fully commit) member states to assist another member under attack. This article was invoked after the September 11 attacks on the United States, after which other NATO members provided assistance to the US War on Terror in Afghanistan. Sony VAIO VPCEB1MFX/BI Battery Collective defense has its roots in multiparty alliances, and entails benefits as well as risks. On the one hand, by combining and pooling resources, it can reduce any single state's cost of providing fully for its security. Smaller members of NATO, Sony VAIO VPCEB1NFX Battery
for example, have leeway to invest a greater proportion of their budget on non-military priorities, such as education or health, since they can count on other members to come to their defense, if needed.
On the other hand, collective defense also involves risky commitments. Sony VAIO VPCEB1NFX/B Battery Member states can become embroiled in costly wars in which neither the direct victim nor the aggressor benefit. In the First World War, countries in the collective defense arrangement known as the Triple Entente (France,Britain, Russia) were pulled into war quickly when Russia started full mobilization against Austria-Hungary, Sony VAIO VPCEB1NFX/L Battery
whose ally Germany subsequently declared war on Russia.
Official statistics are statistics published by government agencies or other public bodies such as international organizations. They provide quantitative or qualitative information on all major areas of citizens' lives, such as economic and social development,[1] Sony VAIO VPCEB1NFX/P Battery
living conditions,[2] health,[3] education,[4] and the environment.[5]
During the 16th and 17th centuries, statistics were a method for counting and listing populations and State resources. The termstatistics comes from the Latin status (state) indicating that the origin of the profession related to the needs of governments.[6] Sony VAIO VPCEB1NFX/W Battery
According to the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, official statistics are statistics disseminated by the national statistical system, excepting those that are explicitly not to be official".[7]
Of course, governmental agencies at all levels, including municipal, Sony VAIO VPCEB1PFX Battery
county, and state administrations, may generate and disseminate official statistics. This broader possibility is accommodated by later definitions. For example:
"Almost every country in the world has one or more government agencies (usually national institutes) Sony VAIO VPCEB1PFX/B Battery that supply decision-makers and other users including the general public and the research community with a continuing flow of information (...). This bulk of data is usually called official statistics. Official statistics should be objective and easily accessible and produced on a continuing basis so that measurement of change is possible." Sony VAIO VPCEB1QGX Battery Official statistics result from the collection and processing of data into statistical information by a government institution or international organisation. They are then disseminated to help users develop their knowledge about a particular topic or geographical area, make comparisons between countries or understand changes over time. Sony VAIO VPCEB1QGX/BI Battery
Official statistics make information on economic and social development accessible to the public, allowing the impact of government policies to be assessed, thus improving accountability.
Official statistics provide a picture of a country or different phenomena through data, and images such as graph and maps. Sony VAIO VPCEB1RGX Battery
Statistical information covers different subject areas (economic, demographic, social etc.). It provides basic information for decision making, evaluations and assessments at different levels.
The goal of statistical organizations is to produce relevant, objective and accurate[9] statistics to keep users well informed and assist good policy and decision-making. Sony VAIO VPCEB1RGX/BI Battery
Various categories
The Fundamental Principles of Official Statistics were adopted in 1992 by the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe, and subsequently endorsed as a global standard by the United Nations Statistical Commission.[10] Sony VAIO VPCEB20 Battery According to the first Principle "Official statistics provide an indispensable element in the information system of a democratic society, serving the government, the economy and the public with data about the economic, demographic, social and environmental situation".[11] Sony VAIO VPCEC20 Battery The categorization of the domains of official statistics has been further developed in the Classification of Statistical Activities, endorsed by the Coference of European Statisticians and various other bodies. Sony VAIO VPCEE20 Battery Official statistics are intended for a wide range of users including governments (central and local), research institutions, professional statisticians, journalists and the media, businesses, educational institutions and the general public. There are three types of users: those with a general interest, business interest or research interest. Sony VAIO VPCEF20 Battery
Each of these user groups has different needs for statistical information.
Users with a general interest
Users with a general interest include the media, schools and the general public. They use official statistics in order to be informed on a particular topic, to observe trends within the society of a local area, country, region of the world. Sony VAIO VPCF112FX/B Battery
Users with a business interest
Users with a business interest include decision makers and users with a particular interest for which they want more detailed information. For them, official statistics are an important reference, providing information on the phenomena or circumstances their own work is focusing on. Sony VAIO VPCF115FG/B Battery For instance, those users will take some official statistics into consideration before launching a product, or deciding on a specific policy or on a marketing strategy. As with the general interest users, this group does not usually have a good understanding of statistical methodologies, but they need more detailed information than the general users. Sony VAIO VPCF116FGBI Battery
Users with a research interest
Users with a research interest are universities, consultants and government agencies. They generally understand something about statistical methodology and want to dig deeper into the facts and the statistical observations; Sony VAIO VPCF117FJ/W Battery
they have an analytical purpose in inventing or explaining interrelations of causes and effects of different phenomena. In this field, official statistics are also used to assess a government's policies.
One common point for all these users is their need to be able to trust the official information. Sony VAIO VPCF117HG/BI Battery
They need to be confident that the results published are authoritative and unbiased. Producers of official statistics must maintain a reputation of professionalism and independence.
The statistical system must be free from interference that could influence decisions on the choice of sources, Sony VAIO VPCF118FJ/W Battery
methods used for data collection, the selection of results to be released as official, and the timing and form of dissemination. Statistical business processes should be transparent and followinternational standards of good practice.
Statistical programs are decided on an annual or multi-annual basis by governments in many countries. Sony VAIO VPCF119FC Battery
They also provide a way to judge the performance of the statistical system.
Producers at the national level
Official statistics are collected and produced by national statistical organisations (NSOs), or other organisations (e.g. cantral banks) that form part of the national statistical system in countries where statistical production is de-centralized. Sony VAIO VPCF119FC/BI Battery These organisations are responsible for producing and disseminating official statistical information, providing the highest quality data. Quality in the context of official statistics is a multi-faceted concept, consisting of components such as relevance, completeness, timeliness, accuracy, accessibility, clarity, cost-efficiency, transparency, comparability and coherence. Sony VAIO VPCF119FJ/BI Battery The core tasks of NSOs, for both centralized and decentralized systems, are determining user needs and filtering these for relevance. Then they transform the relevant user needs into measurable concepts to facilitate data collection and dissemination. Sony VAIO VPCF11AFJ Battery The NSO is in charge of the coordination between statistical producers and of ensuring the coherence and compliance of the statistical system to agreed standards. The NSO has a coordination responsibility as its President/Director General represents the entire national system of official statistics, both at the national and at international levels. Sony VAIO VPCF11AGJ Battery Even after they have been published, some official statistics may be revised. Policy-makers may need preliminary statistics quickly for decision-making purposes, but eventually it is important to publish the best available information, so official statistics are often published in several 'vintages'. Sony VAIO VPCF11AHJ Battery In order to understand the accuracy of economic data and the possible impact of data errors on macroeconomic decision-making, the Federal Reserve Bank of Philadelphia has published a dataset[17]that records both initial real-time data estimates, and subsequent data revisions, for a large number of macroeconomic series. Sony VAIO VPCF11JFX/B Battery
A similar dataset for Europe[18] has been developed by the Euro-Area Business Cycle Network.
Data Sources
There are two sources of data for statistics. Primary, or "statistical" sources are data that are collected primarily for creating official statistics, and include statistical surveys and censuses. Sony VAIO VPCF11M1E Battery
Secondary, or "non-statistical" sources, are data that have been primarily collected for some other purpose (administrative data, private sector data etc.).
Statistical survey or sample survey
A statistical survey or a sample survey is an investigation about the characteristics of a Sony VAIO VPCF11M1E/H Battery
phenomenon by means of collecting data from a sample of the population and estimating their characteristics through the systematic use of statistical methodology.
The main advantages are the direct control over data collection and the possibility to ask for data according to statistical definitions. Sony VAIO VPCF11MFX/B Battery
    • Disadvantages include the high cost of data collection and the quality issues relating to non-response and survey errors
There are various survey methods that can be used such as direct interviewing, telephone, mail, online surveys. Sony VAIO VPCF11S1E Battery,Sony VAIO VPCF11S1E/B Battery,Sony VAIO VPCF11Z1E Battery