Matilda had been married to Henry V

Matilda had been married to Henry V, the Holy Roman Emperor, from which she later claimed the title of Empress, but her husband died in 1125 and she was remarried in 1128 to Geoffrey, the Count of Anjou, whose lands bordered the Duchy of Normandy.^[12] Geoffrey was unpopular with the Anglo-Norman elite: as an Angevin ruler, he was a traditional enemy of the Normans.^[13] Sony VAIO VGN-AW82DS Battery

At the same time, tensions continued to grow as a result of Henry's domestic policies, in particular the high level of revenue he was raising to pay for his various wars.^[14] Conflict was curtailed, however, by the power of the king's personality and reputation.^[15]

Henry attempted to build up a base of political support for Matilda in both England and Normandy,Sony VAIO VGN-AW82JS Battery

demanding that his court take oaths first in 1127, and then again in 1128 and 1131, to recognise Matilda as his immediate successor and recognise her descendants as the rightful ruler after her.^[16] Stephen was amongst those who took this oath in 1127.^[17] Nonetheless, relations between Henry, Matilda and Geoffrey became increasingly strained towards the end of the king's life. Sony VAIO VGN-AW82YS Battery

Matilda and Geoffrey suspected that they lacked genuine support in England, and proposed to Henry in 1135 that the king should hand over the royal castles in Normandy to Matilda whilst he was still alive and insist on the Norman nobility swearing immediate allegiance to her, thereby giving the couple a much more powerful position after Henry's death.^[18] Sony VAIO VGN-AW83FS Battery

Henry angrily declined to do so, probably out of a concern that Geoffrey would try to seize power in Normandy somewhat earlier than intended.^[19] A fresh rebellion broke out in southern Normandy, and Geoffrey and Matilda intervened militarily on behalf of the rebels.^[8] In the middle of this confrontation, Henry unexpectedly fell ill and died near Lyons. Sony VAIO VGN-AW83GS Battery

Following Henry's death, the English throne was taken not by his daughter Matilda, but by Stephen of Blois, ultimately resulting in civil war. Stephen was the son of Stephen-Henry of Blois, one of the powerful counts of northern France. His parents allied themselves with Henry, and Stephen, as a younger son without lands of his own, Sony VAIO VGN-AW83HS Battery

became the king's client, travelling as part of his court and serving in his campaigns.^[20] In return he received lands and was married to Matilda in 1125, the daughter and only heiress of the Count of Boulogne, who owned the important continental port of Boulogne and vast estates in the north-west and south-east of England. Sony VAIO VGN-AW90NS Battery

By 1135, Stephen was a well established figure in Anglo-Norman society, while his younger brotherHenry had also risen to prominence, becoming the Bishop of Winchester and the second-richest man in England after the king.^[22]Henry of Winchester was keen to reverse what he perceived as encroachment by the Norman kings on the rights of the church. Sony VAIO VGN-AW90S Battery

When news began to spread of Henry I's death, many of the potential claimants to the throne were not well placed to respond. Geoffrey and Matilda were in Anjou, rather awkwardly supporting the rebels in their campaign against the royal army, which included a number of Matilda's supporters such as Robert of Gloucester. Sony VAIO VGN-AW90US Battery

Many of these barons had taken an oath to stay in Normandy until the late king was properly buried, which prevented them from returning to England.^[24] Nonetheless, Geoffrey and Matilda took the opportunity to march into southern Normandy and seize a number of key castles; there they stopped, unable to advance further.^[25] Sony VAIO VGN-AW91CDS Battery

Stephen's elder brother Theobald, who had succeeded his father as count, was further south still, in Blois.^[26]

Stephen, however, was conveniently placed in Bolougne, and when news reached him of Henry's death he left for England, accompanied by his military household. Sony VAIO VGN-AW91CJS Battery

Robert of Gloucester had garrisoned the ports of Dover and Canterbury and some accounts suggest that they refused Stephen access when he first arrived.^[27]Nonetheless Stephen probably reached his own estate on the edge of London by 8 December and over the next week he began to seize power in England.^[28] Sony VAIO VGN-AW91CYS Battery

The crowds in London traditionally claimed a right to elect the king of England, and they proclaimed Stephen the new monarch, believing that he would grant the city new rights and privileges in return.^[29] Henry of Blois delivered the support of the church to Stephen: Stephen was able to advance to Winchester, whereRoger, Sony VAIO VGN-AW91DS Battery

who was both the Bishop of Salisbury and the Lord Chancellor, instructed the royal treasury to be handed over to Stephen.^[30] On 15 December, Henry delivered an agreement under which Stephen would grant extensive freedoms and liberties to the church, in exchange for the Archbishop of Canterbury and the Papal Legate supporting his succession to the throne.^[31] Sony VAIO VGN-AW91JS Battery

There was the slight problem of the religious oath that Stephen had taken to support the Empress Matilda, but Henry convincingly argued that the late king had been wrong to insist that his court take the oath.^[32] Furthermore, the late king had only insisted on that oath to protect the stability of the kingdom, and in light of the chaos that might now ensue, Sony VAIO VGN-AW91YS Battery

Stephen would be justified in ignoring it.^[32] Henry was also able to persuade Hugh Bigod, the late king's royal steward, to swear that the king had changed his mind about the succession on his deathbed, nominating Stephen instead.Stephen's coronation was held a week later at Westminster Abbey on 26 December. Sony VAIO VGN-AW92CDS Battery

Meanwhile, the Norman nobility gathered at Le Neubourg to discuss declaring Theobald king, probably following the news that Stephen was gathering support in England.^[36] The Normans argued that the count, as the eldest grandson of William the Conqueror, had the most valid claim over the kingdom and the duchy, and was certainly preferable to Matilda. Sony VAIO VGN-AW92CJS Battery

Theobald met with the Norman barons and Robert of Gloucester at Lisieux on 21 December but their discussions were interrupted by the sudden news from England that Stephen's coronation was to occur the next day.^[37] Theobald then agreed to the Normans' proposal that he be made king, only to find that his former support immediately ebbed away: Sony VAIO VGN-AW92CYS Battery

the barons were not prepared to support the division of England and Normandy by opposing Stephen.^[38] Stephen subsequently financially compensated Theobald, who in return remained in Blois and supported his brother's succession.

Stephen had to intervene in the north of England immediately after his coronation. Sony VAIO VGN-AW92DS Battery

David I of Scotland invaded the north on the news of Henry's death, taking Carlisle, Newcastle and other key strongholds.^[33] Northern England was a disputed territory at this time, with the Scottish kings laying a traditional claim to Cumberland, and David also claiming Northumbria by virtue of his marriage to the daughter of the former Anglo-Saxon earl Waltheof.^[41] Sony VAIO VGN-AW92JS Battery

Stephen rapidly marched north with an army and met David at Durham.^[42] An agreement was made under which David would return most of the territory he had taken, with the exception of Carlisle. In return, Stephen confirmed David's son Prince Henry's possessions in England, including the Earldom of Huntingdon. Sony VAIO VGN-AW92YS Battery

Returning south, Stephen held his first royal court at Easter 1136.^[43] A wide range of nobles gathered at Westminster for the event, including many of the Anglo-Norman barons and most of the higher officials of the church.^[44] Stephen issued a new royal charter, confirming the promises he had made to the church, promising to reverse Sony VAIO VGN-AW93FS Battery

Henry's policies on the royal forests and to reform any abuses of the royal legal system.^[45] Stephen portrayed himself as the natural successor to Henry I's policies, and reconfirmed the existing seven earldoms in the kingdom on their existing holders.^[46] The Easter court was a lavish event, and a large amount of money was spent on the event itself, clothes and gifts.^[47] Sony VAIO VGN-AW93GS Battery

Stephen gave out grants of land and favours to those present, and endowed numerous church foundations with land and privileges.^[48] Stephen's accession to the throne still needed to be ratified by the Pope, however, and Henry of Blois appears to have been responsible for ensuring that testimonials of support were sent both from Stephen's elder brother Theobald and from the French king Louis VI, Sony VAIO VGN-AW93HS Battery

to whom Stephen represented a useful balance to Angevin power in the north of France.^[49] Pope Innocent IIconfirmed Stephen as king by letter later that year, and Stephen's advisers circulated copies widely around England to demonstrate Stephen's legitimacy. Sony VAIO VGN-AW93ZFS Battery

Troubles continued across Stephen's new kingdom. After the Welsh victory at the battle of Llwchwr in January 1136 and the successful ambush of Richard Fitz Gilbert de Clare in April, south Wales rose in rebellion, starting in east Glamorgan and rapidly spreading across the rest of south Wales during 1137.^[51] Sony VAIO VGN-AW93ZGS Battery

Owain Gwynedd and Gruffydd ap Rhys successfully captured considerable territories, including Carmarthen Castle.^[41] Stephen responded by sending Richard's brother Baldwin and the Marcher Lord Robert Fitz Harold of Ewyas into Wales to pacify the region. Neither mission was particularly successful and by the end of 1137 the king appears to have abandoned attempts to put down the rebellion. Sony VAIO VGN-AW93ZHS Battery

Historian David Crouch suggests that Stephen effectively "bowed out of Wales" around this time to concentrate on his other problems.^[52] Meanwhile, Stephen had put down two revolts in the south-west led by Baldwin de Redversand Robert of Bampton; Baldwin was released after his capture and travelled to Normandy, where he became an increasingly vocal critic of the king.^[53] Sony VAIO VGN-BZ11EN Battery

Geoffrey of Anjou invaded Normandy in early 1136 and, after a temporary truce, invaded later the same year, raiding and burning estates rather than trying to hold the territory.^[54] Events in England meant that Stephen was unable to travel to Normandy himself, so Waleran de Beaumont, appointed by Stephen as the lieutenant of Normandy, and Theobald led the efforts to defend the duchy. Sony VAIO VGN-BZ11MN Battery

Stephen himself only returned to the duchy in 1137, where he met with Louis VI and Theobald to agree to an informal regional alliance, probably brokered by Henry, to counter the growing Angevin power in the region.^[56] As part of this deal, Louis recognised Stephen's son Eustace as Duke of Normandy in exchange for Eustace giving fealty to the French king.^[57] Sony VAIO VGN-BZ11XN Battery

Stephen was less successful, however, in regaining the Argentan province along the Normandy and Anjou border, which Geoffrey had taken at the end of 1135.^[58] Stephen formed an army to retake it, but the frictions between his Flemish mercenary forces led by William of Ypres and the local Norman barons resulted in a battle between the two halves of his army.^[59] Sony VAIO VGN-BZ12VN Battery

The Norman forces then deserted the king, forcing Stephen to give up his campaign.^[60]Stephen agreed to another truce with Geoffrey, promising to pay him 2,000 marks a year in exchange for peace along the Norman borders.^{[54][nb 5]}

Stephen's first few years as king can be interpreted in different ways. Sony VAIO VGN-BZ12XN Battery

Seen positively, Stephen stabilised the northern border with Scotland, contained Geoffrey's attacks on Normandy, was at peace with Louis VI, enjoyed good relations with the church and had the broad support of his barons.^[63] There were significant underlying problems, nonetheless. Sony VAIO VGN-BZ31VT Battery

The north of England was now controlled by David and Prince Henry, Stephen had abandoned Wales, the fighting in Normandy had considerably destabilised the duchy, and an increasing number of barons felt that Stephen had given them neither the lands nor the titles they felt they deserved or were owed.^[64] Sony VAIO VGN-BZ31XT Battery

Stephen was also rapidly running out of money: Henry's considerable treasury had been emptied by 1138 due to the costs of running Stephen's more lavish court, and the need to raise and maintain his mercenary armies fighting in England and Normandy.^[65]

Fighting broke out on several fronts during 1138. Sony VAIO VGN-BZ560 Battery

Firstly, Robert of Gloucester rebelled against the king, starting the descent into civil war in England.^[65] An illegitimate son of Henry I and the half-brother of the Empress Matilda, Robert was one of the most powerful Anglo-Norman barons, controlling estates in Normandy as well as the Earldom of Gloucester.^[66] Sony VAIO VGN-BZ560N24 Battery

In 1138, Robert renounced his fealty to Stephen and declared his support for Matilda, triggering a major regional rebellion in Kent and across the south-west of England, although Robert himself remained in Normandy.^[67] Matilda had not been particularly active in asserting her claims to throne since 1135 and in many ways it was Robert that took the initiative in declaring war in 1138.^[68] Sony VAIO VGN-BZ560N30 Battery

In France, Geoffrey took advantage of the situation by re-invading Normandy. David of Scotland also invaded the north of England once again, announcing that he was supporting the claim of his niece the Empress Matilda to the throne, pushing south into Yorkshire.

Stephen rapidly responded to the revolts and invasions, focusing primarily on England rather than Normandy. Sony VAIO VGN-BZ560P Battery

His wife Matilda was sent to Kent with ships and resources from Boulogne, with the task of retaking the key port of Dover, under Robert's control.^[66] A small number of Stephen's household knights were sent north to help the fight against the Scots, where David's forces were defeated later that year at the battle of the Standard in August by the forces of Thurstan, the Archbishop of York. Sony VAIO VGN-BZ560P20 Battery

Despite this victory, however, David still occupied most of the north.^[69] Stephen himself went west in an attempt to regain control of Gloucestershire, first striking north into the Welsh Marches, taking Hereford and Shrewsbury, before heading south to Bath.^[66] The town of Bristol itself proved too strong for him, and Stephen contented himself with raiding and pillaging the surrounding area. Sony VAIO VGN-BZ560P22 Battery

The rebels appear to have expected Robert to intervene with support, but he remained in Normandy throughout the year, trying to persuade the Empress Matilda to invade England herself.^[70] Dover finally surrendered to the queen's forces later in the year.^[71]

Stephen's military campaign in England had progressed well, and historian David Crouch describes it as "a military achievement of the first rank".Sony VAIO VGN-BZ560P28 Battery

The king took the opportunity of his military advantage to forge a peace agreement with Scotland.^[71] Stephen's wife Matilda was sent to negotiate another agreement between Stephen and David, called the treaty of Durham; Northumbria and Cumbria would effectively be granted to David and his son Prince Henry, Sony VAIO VGN-BZ560P30 Battery

in exchange for their fealty and future peace along the border.^[69] Unfortunately, the powerful Ranulf, Earl of Chester, considered himself to hold the traditional rights to Carlisle and Cumberland and was extremely displeased to see them being given to the Scots, a problem which would have long lasting implications in the war.^[72] Sony VAIO VGN-BZ560P34 Battery

By 1139, an invasion of England by Robert and Matilda appeared imminent. Geoffrey and Matilda had secured much of Normandy and, together with Robert, spent the beginning of the year mobilising forces ready for a cross-Channel expedition.^[73]Matilda also appealed to the papacy at the start of the year, putting forward her legal claim to the English throne; Sony VAIO VGN-BZ561 Battery

not unsurprisingly, the pope declined to reverse his earlier support for Stephen, but from Matilda's perspective the case usefully established that Stephen's claim was disputed.^[74]

Meanwhile, Stephen prepared for the coming conflict by creating a number of additional earldoms.^[75] Sony VAIO VGN-BZ561N20 Battery

Only a handful of earldoms had existed under Henry I and these had been largely symbolic in nature. Stephen created many more, filling them with men he considered to be loyal, capable military commanders, and in the more vulnerable parts of the country assigning them new lands and additional executive powers. Sony VAIO VGN-BZ561P20 Battery

Stephen appears to have had several objectives in mind, including both ensuring the loyalty of his key supporters by granting them these honours, and improving his defences in vulnerable parts of the kingdom. Stephen was heavily influenced by his principal advisor, Waleran de Beaumont, the twin brother ofRobert of Leicester. Sony VAIO VGN-BZ562P Battery

The Beaumont twins and their younger brother and cousins received the majority of these new earldoms.^[78] From 1138 onwards, Stephen gave them the earldoms of Worcester, Leicester, Hereford, Warwick and Pembroke, which—especially when combined with the possessions of Stephen's new ally, Sony VAIO VGN-BZ563P Battery

Prince Henry, in Cumberland and Northumbria—created a wide block of territory to act as a buffer zone between the troubled south-west, Chester and the rest of the kingdom.^[79]

Stephen took steps to remove a group of bishops he regarded as a threat to his rule. The royal administration under Henry I had been headed by Roger, Sony VAIO VGN-BZAAFS Battery

the Bishop of Salisbury, supported by Roger's nephews, Alexander and Nigel, the Bishops of Lincolnand Ely respectively, and Roger's son, Roger le Poer, who was the Lord Chancellor.^[80] These bishops were powerful landowners as well as ecclesiastical rulers, and they had begun to build new castles and increase the size of their military forces, Sony VAIO VGN-BZAAHS Battery

leading Stephen to suspect that they were about to defect to the Empress Matilda. Roger and his family were also enemies of Waleran, who disliked their control of the royal administration.^[81] In June 1139, Stephen held his court in Oxford, where a fight between Alan of Brittany and Roger's men broke out, an incident probably deliberately created by Stephen. Sony VAIO VGN-BZAANS Battery

Stephen responded by demanding that Roger and the other bishops surrender all of their castles in England. This threat was backed up by the arrest of the bishops, with the exception of Nigel who had taken refuge in Devizes Castle; the bishop only surrendered after Stephen besieged the castle and threatened to execute Roger le Poer. Sony VAIO VGN-BZAAPS Battery

The remaining castles were then surrendered to the king.^{[81][nb 8]}The incident successfully removed any military threat from the bishops, but it may have damaged Stephen's relationship with the senior clergy, and in particular with his brother Henry. Both sides were now ready for war.

Anglo-Norman warfare during the civil war was characterised by attritional military campaigns, Sony VAIO VGN-CS118E/Q Battery

in which commanders tried to raid enemy lands and seize castles in order to allow them to take control of their adversaries' territory, ultimately winning slow, strategic victories.^[86] Occasionally pitched battles were fought between armies but these were considered highly risky endeavours and were usually avoided by prudent commanders. Sony VAIO VGN-CS118E/R Battery

Despite the use of feudal levies, Norman warfare traditionally depended on rulers raising and spending large sums of cash.^[87] The cost of warfare had risen considerably in the first part of the 12th century, and adequate supplies of ready cash were increasingly proving important in the success of campaigns. Sony VAIO VGN-CS118E/W Battery

Stephen and Matilda's households centred on small bodies of knights called the familia regis; this inner circle formed the basis for a headquarters in any military campaign.^[89] The armies of the period were still similar to those of the previous century, composing bodies of mounted, armoured knights, supported by infantry.^[90] Sony VAIO VGN-CS11S/P Battery

Many of these men would have worn long,ring armour tunics, with helmets, greaves and arm protection.^[90] Swords were common, along with lances for cavalry;crossbowmen had become more numerous, and longbows were occasionally used in battle alongside the older shortbow.^[90] These forces were either feudal levies, Sony VAIO VGN-CS11S/Q Battery

drawn up by local nobles for a limited period of service during a campaign or, increasingly, mercenaries, who were expensive but more flexible in the duration of their service and often more skilled.^[91]

The Normans had first developed castles in the 10th and 11th centuries, and their occupation of England after 1066 had made extensive use of them. Sony VAIO VGN-CS11S/W Battery

Most castles took the form of earthwork and timber motte-and-bailey or ringwork constructs; easily built with local labour and resources, these were resilient and easy to defend. The Anglo-Norman elite became adept at strategically placing these castles along rivers and valleys to control populations, trade and regions.^[92] Sony VAIO VGN-CS11Z/R Battery

In the decades before the civil war, some newer, stone-built keeps had begun to be introduced. Unlike the more traditional designed, these required expensive skilled labourers and could only be built slowly over many seasons. Although these square keeps would later prove to have vulnerabilities, Sony VAIO VGN-CS120J/P Battery

the ballistae and mangonelsused in the 1140s were significantly less powerful than the later trebuchet designs, giving defenders a substantial advantage over attackers.^[93] As a result, slow sieges to starve defenders out, or mining operations to undermine walls, tended to be preferred by commanders over direct assaults. Sony VAIO VGN-CS120J/Q Battery

Both sides responded by building new castles, sometimes creating systems of strategic fortifications. In the south-west Matilda's supporters built a range of castles to protect the territory, usually motte-and-bailey designs such as those atWinchcombe, Upper Slaughter, or Bampton.^[94] Sony VAIO VGN-CS120J/R Battery

Similarly, Stephen built a new chain of fen-edge castles at Burwell, Lidgate,Rampton, Caxton, and Swavesey – each about six to nine miles (ten to fifteen km) apart – in order to protect his lands around Cambridge.^[95] Many of these castles were termed "adulterine", unauthorised, because, in the chaos of the war, no royal permission had given to the lord for their construction.^[96] Sony VAIO VGN-CS190JTB Battery

Contemporary chroniclers saw this as a matter of concern;Robert of Torigni suggested that as many as 1,115 such castles had been built during the conflict, although this was probably an exaggeration as elsewhere he suggests an alternative figure of 126.^[97]

Another feature of the war was the creation of many "counter-castles".^[98] Sony VAIO VGN-CS190JTP Battery

These had been used in English conflicts for several years before the civil war and involved building a basic castle during a siege, alongside the main target of attack.^[99] Typically these would be built in either a ringwork or a motte-and-bailey design between 200 to 300 yards (180 to 270 metres) away from the target, just beyond the range of a bow.^[99] Sony VAIO VGN-CS190JTQ Battery

Counter-castles could be used to either act as firing platforms for siege weaponry, or as bases for controlling the region in their own right.^[100] Most counter-castles were destroyed after their use but in some cases the earthworks survived, such as the counter-castles called Jew's Mount and Mount Pelham built by Stephen in 1141 outside Oxford Castle.^[101] Sony VAIO VGN-CS190JTR Battery

Henry IV of England died in 1413

Henry IV of England died in 1413 and was replaced by his eldest son Henry V. Because of Charles VI of France's mental illness, his power was exercised by royal princes whose rivalries continued to cause deep divisions in France. Henry V was well aware of these divisions and hoped to exploit them. In 1414 while he held court at Leicester, he received ambassadors from Burgandy.^[51] Sony VAIO VPCY21S1E/G battery

Henry accredited envoys to visit the French king and make clear his territorial claims in France; he also demanded the hand of Charles VI's youngest daughterCatherine of Valois. These demands not being met by the French Henry prepared for war.

In August 1415 Henry V sailed from England and landed with a force of about 10,500 fighting men and laid siege toHarfleur, Sony VAIO VPCF24M1E battery

the city resisted for longer than expected, but finally surrendered on 22 September 1415. Because of the unexpected delay most of the campaign season was gone. So rather than march on Paris directly, he elected to make a raiding expedition across France toward English-occupied Calais. In a campaign reminiscent of Crécy, Sony VAIO VGN-AW110J/H Battery

he found himself outmanoeuvred and low on supplies, and had to make a stand against a much larger French army at the Battle of Agincourt, north of the Somme. Despite the problems and having a smaller force, his victory was near-total; the French defeat was catastrophic, with the loss of many of the Armagnac leaders. Sony VAIO VGN-AW11M/H Battery

About 40% of the French nobility was lost at Agincourt.^[52] Henry apparently concerned that so many prisoners were a security risk, as there were more French prisoners than the entire English army, he ordered their killing.

Henry retook much of Normandy, including Caen in 1417 and Rouen on January 19, 1419, making Normandy English for the first time in two centuries. Sony VAIO VGN-AW11S/B Battery

A formal alliance was made with the Duchy of Burgundy, who had taken Paris, after the assassination of Duke John the Fearless in 1419. In 1420, Henry met with king Charles VI, they signed the Treaty of Troyes, by which Henry finally would get to marry Charles' daughter Catherine of Valois and Henry's heirs would inherit the throne of France. Sony VAIO VGN-AW11XU/Q Battery

The Dauphin, Charles VII, was declared illegitimate. Henry formally entered Paris later that year and the agreement was ratified by the Estates-General.^[51]

On 22 March 1421 Henry V's progress, in his French campaign, experienced an unexpected reverse. Sony VAIO VGN-AW11Z/B Battery

Henry had left his brother and heir presumptive Thomas, duke of Clarence in charge while he returned to England. Clarence engaged a Franco-Scottish force led by John Stewart, Earl of Buchan at the battle of Baugé. It seem that Clarence attacked before his army were fully assembled. He was killed and the English defeated in the ensuing battle. Sony VAIO VGN-AW120J/H Battery

Henry returned to France and landed at Calais on 10 June 1421. From Calais he went onto Paris then visiting Chartres and Gâtinais before returning to Paris. From there he decided to attack the dauphin held town of Meaux. It turned out to be more difficult to overcome than first thought, the siege began about 6 October 1421 and the town held on for seven months before finally falling on 11 May 1422.Sony VAIO VGN-AW150Y/H Battery

At the end of May Henry was joined by his queen and together with the French court, they went to rest at Senlis. While there it became apparent that he was ill(possibly dysentery) and when he set out to the Upper Loire it was evident that he would not be able to make it so was diverted to the royal castle at Vincennes, near Paris where he died 31 August 1422.^[51] Sony VAIO VGN-AW160J/Q Battery

The elderly and insane Charles VI of France died, two months later, on 21 October 1422.^[54] Henry left an only child, his nine month old son, Henry, later to become Henry VI.^[54]

On his deathbed, Henry V had given the duke of Bedford the responsibility of English France (as Henry VI was only an infant). Sony VAIO VGN-AW170Y/Q Battery

So the war in France continued under Bedford's generalship, and several battles were won. The English won a decisive victory at the Battle of Verneuil, (17 August 1424). At the battle of Baugé Clarence had rushed into battle without the support of the English archers. At Verneuil the archers were used to devastating effect against the Franco-Scottish army. Sony VAIO VGN-AW180Y/Q Battery

The effect of the battle was to virtually destroy the dauphin's field army and to eliminate the Scots as a significant military force for the rest of the war.^[54][55]

Joan of Arc's appearance sparked a revival of French spirits and the tide began to turn against the English.^[54] Sony VAIO VGN-AW190JAH Battery

In 1428, the English laid siege to Orléans. Their force was insufficient to fully invest the city. Then in 1429, Joan of Arc convinced the Dauphin to send her to the siege, saying she had received visions from God telling her to drive out the English. She raised the morale of the local troops and they attacked the English Redoubts, forcing the English to lift the siege. Sony VAIO VGN-AW190NAB Battery

Inspired by Joan, the French took several English strong points on the Loire.^[56]

Shortly afterwards, a French army broke through the English archers at Patay defeating an army commanded by John Fastolf and John Talbot, 1st Earl of Shrewsbury. This victory opened the way for the Dauphin to march to Reims for his coronation as Charles VII (16 July 1429).^[56] Sony VAIO VGN-AW190NBB Battery

Joan changed the way that the French forces engaged with the English in battle. Her tactics were not to engage prepared English lines, with a full frontal assault, as had been the traditional way.

Henry VI was eventually crowned king of England, at Westminster Abbey on 5 November 1429 and king of France at Notre-Dame, in Paris, on 16 December 1431. Sony VAIO VGN-AW190NCB Battery

Joan was captured by the Burgundians in 1430, Charles refused to pay her ransom so she was sold to the English, they tried her as a witch, Joan was found guilty and executed by being burned at the stake on 30 May 1431.^[56]

After Joan of Arc's death the fortunes of war turned remorselessly against the English.^[57] Sony VAIO VGN-AW190YAB Battery

Most of Henry's royal advisers were against making peace with the French.^[54] There were different factions, the duke of Bedford wanted to defend Normandy, the duke of Gloucester was committed to just Calais whereas Cardinal Beaufort was inclined to peace. Negotiations were stalled. It seems that at the congress of Arras, in the summer of 1435, Sony VAIO VGN-AW190YBB Battery

where the duke of Beaufort was mediator, the English were unrealistic in their demands. A few days after the congress ended in September, Philip III, duke of Burgundy deserted to Charles VII, signing the Treaty of Arras that returned Paris to the King of France. This was a major blow to English sovereignty in France.^[54] Then the duke of Bedford died 14 September 1435 and was replaced by a lesser man.^[57]Sony VAIO VGN-AW190YCB Battery

Burgundy's allegiance remained fickle, but their focus on expanding their domains into the Low Countries left them little energy to intervene in France.^[58] The long truces that marked the war also gave Charles time to reorganise his army and government, replacing his feudal levies with a more modern professional army that could put its superior numbers to good use, and centralising the French state. Sony VAIO VGN-AW190YDB Battery

A castle that once could only be captured after a prolonged siege would now fall after a few days from bombardment by cannons with the French artillery having the reputation as the best in the world.^[57]

By 1449, the French had retaken Rouen, and in 1450 the Count of Clermont and Arthur de Richemont, Earl of Richmond, Sony VAIO VGN-AW220J/B Battery

of the Montfort family (the future Arthur III, Duke of Brittany) caught an English army attempting to relieve Caen at the Battle of Formigny and defeated it, the English army having been attacked from the flank and rear by Richemont's force just as they were on the verge of beating Clermont's army.^[59] Sony VAIO VGN-AW230J/H Battery

After Charles VII's successful campaign in retaking Normandy in 1450, he concentrated his efforts on Gascony the last province held by the English. Bordeaux, the capital of Gascony, was besieged and surrendered to the French on 30 June 1451. Largely due to the English sympathies of the Gascon people this was reversed when John Talbot, earl of Shrewsbury and his army retook the city on 23 October 1452.Sony VAIO VGN-AW235J/B Battery

However, the English were defeated at the Battle of Castillon 17 July 1453. Talbot had been persuaded to engage the French army at Castillon near to Bordeaux. During the battle the French appeared to retreat towards their camp. The French camp at Castillon had been laid out by Charles VII's ordinance officer Sony VAIO VGN-AW290JFQ Battery

Jean Bureau and this was instrumental in the French success as when the French cannon opened fire, from their positions in the camp, the English took severe casualties including the death of both Talbot and his son.^[60]

After three hundred years, English rule in Gascony was over as was the hundred year war. Sony VAIO VGN-AW41JF Battery

The Battle of Castillon is considered the last battle of the Hundred Years' War.^[60] The English were in no position to carry on the war as they faced several years of unrest at home, culminating in a civil war known as the Wars of the Roses that started in 1455.

The Hundred Years' War was a time of military evolution. Sony VAIO VGN-AW41JF/H Battery

Weapons, tactics, army structure, and the societal meaning of war all changed, partly in response to the demands of the war, partly through advancement in technology, and partly through lessons that warfare taught.

Before the Hundred Years' War, heavy cavalry was considered the most powerful unit in an army, but by the war's end, this belief had shifted. Sony VAIO VGN-AW41MF Battery

The heavy horse was increasingly negated by the use of the longbow (and, later, another long-distance weapon: firearms) and fixed defensive positions of men-at-arms — tactics which helped lead to English victories at Crécy and Agincourt. Learning from the Scots, the English began using lightly armoured mounted troops — later called dragoons — who would dismount in order to fight battles. Sony VAIO VGN-AW41MF/H Battery

By the end of the Hundred Years' War, this meant a fading of the expensively outfitted, highly trained heavy cavalry, and the eventual end of the armoured knight as a military force and the nobility as a political one.^[61]

The war also stimulated nationalistic sentiment. Sony VAIO VGN-AW41XH Battery

It devastated France as a land, but it also awakened French nationalism. The Hundred Years' War accelerated the process of transforming France from a feudal monarchy to a centralized state. The conflict became one of not just English and French kings but one between the English and French peoples. Sony VAIO VGN-AW41XH/Q Battery

There were constant rumours in England that the French meant to invade and destroy the English language. National feeling that emerged out of such rumours unified both France and England further. The Hundred Years War basically confirmed the fall of the French language in England, which had served as the language of the ruling classes and commerce there from the time of the Norman conquest until 1362. Sony VAIO VGN-AW41ZF Battery

The Anarchy was a civil war in England and Normandy between 1135 and 1153, characterised by a breakdown in law and order. The conflict originated with a succession crisis towards the end of the reign of Henry I, when the king's only legitimate son, William Adelin, died aboard the White Ship. Henry's attempts to install his daughter, the Empress Matilda, Sony VAIO VGN-AW41ZF/B Battery

as his successor were unsuccessful and on Henry's death in 1135, his nephew Stephen of Bloistook power with the help of his brother, Henry of Winchester. Stephen's early reign was marked by fierce fighting with English barons, rebellious Welsh leaders and Scottish invaders. Following a major rebellion in the south-west of England, Matilda invaded in 1139 with the help of her half-brother, Robert of Gloucester.Sony VAIO VGN-AW50DB/H Battery

Neither side was able to achieve a decisive advantage during the first years of the war; the Empress came to control the south-west of England and much of the Thames Valley, while Stephen remained in control of the south-east. Sony VAIO VGN-AW51JGB Battery

The castles of the period were easily defensible, and much of the fighting was attritional in character, comprising sieges, raiding and skirmishing between armies of knights and footsoldiers, many of them mercenaries. In 1141 Stephen was captured following the battle of Lincoln, causing a collapse in his authority over most of the country. Sony VAIO VGN-AW52JGB Battery

The Empress Matilda was forced to retreat from London by hostile crowds before she could be crowned queen; shortly afterwards, Robert was captured at the rout of Winchester and the two sides agreed to swap their respective captives. Stephen almost seized Matilda in 1142 during the siege of Oxford, but the Empress escaped from Oxford Castle across the frozen River Thames to safety. Sony VAIO VGN-AW53FB Battery

The war dragged on for many more years. Matilda's husband, Geoffrey of Anjou successfully conquered Normandy, but in England neither side could achieve victory. Rebel barons began to acquire ever greater power in northern England and in East Anglia, with widespread devastation in the regions of major fighting. Sony VAIO VGN-AW70B/Q Battery

In 1148 the Empress returned to Normandy, leaving the campaigning in England to her young son, Henry Fitzempress. Stephen unsuccessfully attempted to have his own son, Eustace, recognised by the Church as the next king of England. By the early 1150s the barons and the Church mostly wanted a long-term peace. Sony VAIO VGN-AW71JB Battery

When Henry re-invaded England in 1153, neither faction's forces were keen to fight. After limited campaigning and the siege of Wallingford, Stephen and Henry agreed a negotiated peace, the Treaty of Winchester, in which Stephen recognised Henry as his heir. Stephen died the next year and Henry II began the long period of reconstruction in England. Sony VAIO VGN-AW72JB Battery

Chroniclers described the period as one in which "Christ and his saints were asleep" and Victorian historians called the conflict "the Anarchy" because of the chaos, although modern historians have questioned the accuracy of the term and some contemporary accounts.

The origins of the civil war of the Anarchy lay in a succession crisis involving England and Normandy.Sony VAIO VGN-AW73FB Battery

In the 11th and 12th centuries, north-west France was controlled by a number of dukes and counts, frequently in conflict with one another for valuable territory.^[2] In 1066 one of these men, Duke William II of Normandy (William the Conqueror), mounted an invasion to conquer the rich Anglo-Saxon kingdom of England, pushing on into south Wales and northern England in the coming years. Sony VAIO VGN-AW80NS Battery

The division and control of these lands after William's death proved problematic and his children fought multiple wars over the spoils.^[3] Henry I of England seized power after the death of his elder brother William Rufus and subsequently invaded and captured the Duchy of Normandy, controlled by his eldest brother Robert Curthose, defeating Robert's army at the battle of Tinchebray.^[4] Sony VAIO VGN-AW80S Battery

Henry intended for his lands to be inherited by his only legitimate son, William Adelin.^[5]

In 1120, the political landscape changed dramatically when the White Ship sank on route from Barfleur in Normandy to England; around three hundred passengers died, including Adelin.^{[6][nb 1]} With Adelin dead, the inheritance to the English throne was thrown into doubt. Sony VAIO VGN-AW80US Battery

Rules of succession in western Europe at the time were uncertain; in some parts of France, maleprimogeniture, in which the eldest son would inherit a title, was becoming more popular.^[8] In other parts of Europe, including Normandy and England, the tradition was for lands to be divided up, Sony VAIO VGN-AW81DS Battery

with the eldest son taking patrimonial lands—usually considered to be the most valuable—and younger sons being given smaller, or more recently acquired, partitions or estates.^[8] The problem was further complicated by the sequence of unstable Anglo-Norman successions over the previous sixty years: there had been no peaceful, uncontested successions.^[9] Sony VAIO VGN-AW81JS Battery

With William Adelin dead, Henry had only one other legitimate child, Matilda, but female rights of inheritance were unclear during this period.^[10] Despite Henry taking a second wife, Queen Adeliza, it became increasingly unlikely that Henry would have another legitimate son and instead he looked to Matilda as his intended heir.^[11] Sony VAIO VGN-AW81YS Battery

The Hundred Years' War

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The Hundred Years' War was a series of conflicts waged from 1337 to 1453 between the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of France and their various allies for control of the French throne. It was the result of a dynastic disagreement dating back to William the Conqueror who became King of England in 1066, while remaining Duke of Normandy. Sony VAIO PCG-3B1M Battery

As dukes of Normandy, the English kings owed homage to the King of France. In 1337 Edward III of England refused to pay homage to Philip VI of France, which resulted in the French king confiscating Edward's lands in Aquitaine.

Edward responded by declaring that he, not Philip, was the rightful king of France - a claim dating back to 1328 when Charles IV of France had died without a male heir. Sony VAIO PCG-3C1T Battery

A claim for the succession had been made for Edward through the right of his mother Isabella, daughter of Philip IV. But it had been the son of Philip IV’s younger brother, Charles of Valois, who had been made king. The establishment of a legal succession to the French crown was central to the war and there were succeeding generations of English and French claimants. Sony VAIO PCG-3D1M Battery

The war is commonly divided into three or four phases, separated by various unsuccessful truces: theEdwardian Era War (1337–1360),^[1] the Caroline War (1369–1389), and the Lancastrian War (1415–1453), which saw the slow decline of Plantagenet fortunes after the appearance of Joan of Arc (1412–1431). Sony VAIO PCG-3G2M Battery

Several other contemporary European conflicts were directly related to this conflict: theBreton War of Succession, the Castilian Civil War; the War of the Two Peters; and the 1383-1385 Crisis. The term "Hundred Years' War" was a later term invented by historians to describe the series of events.

The war owes its historical significance to a number of factors. Sony VAIO PCG-5R1M Battery

Although primarily a dynastic conflict, the war gave impetus to ideas of both French and English nationalism. Militarily, it saw the introduction of new weapons and tactics which eroded the older system of feudal armies dominated by heavy cavalry in Western Europe. The first standing armies in Western Europe since the time of theWestern Roman Empire were introduced for the war,Sony VAIO PCG-7141M Battery

thus changing the role of the peasantry. For all this, as well as for its long duration, it is often viewed as one of the most significant conflicts in the history of medieval warfare. In France, civil wars, deadly epidemics, famines and maraudingmercenary armies turned to banditry reduced the population by about one-half. Sony VAIO PCG-7143M Battery

The Anglo-Norman dynasty that had ruled England since the Norman Conquest of 1066, was brought to an end by an alliance betweenGeoffrey of Anjou and Robert of Gloucester, with Geoffrey's son Henry becoming the first of the Angevin kings of England in 1154 as King Henry II.^[2] The King of England, in what is now known as the Angevin Empire, Sony VAIO PCG-7151M Battery

directly ruled more territory on the continent than did the King of France himself. A potential difficulty was that as dukes on the continent, the English kings owed homage to the King of France, however as the dukes had large amounts of autonomy from the 11th century onwards it was not really a problem in practice.^[3] Sony VAIO PCG-7154M Battery

John of England inherited the Angevin domains from King Richard I. However, Philip II of France acted decisively to exploit the weaknesses of King John, both legally and militarily, and by 1204 had succeeded in wresting control of most of the ancient continental possessions. The subsequent Battle of Bouvines (1214), Sony VAIO PCG-7162M Battery

along with the Saintonge War (1242) and finally the War of Saint-Sardos (1324), reduced England's holdings on the continent to a few small provinces in Gascony, and the complete loss of Normandy.

When Philip IV died in 1314, his eldest son Louis X inherited the throne. Louis X died in 1316, leaving a daughter (Joan II of Navarre) and a pregnant wife. Sony VAIO PCG-7181M Battery

The wife produced a son, John I, who died in infancy. Philip IV's second-eldest son, Philip, Count of Poitiers, sought the throne for himself to the exclusion of his niece (Louis X's daughter). This was opposed by several of the nobility, such as Odo IV, Duke of Burgundy (Joan II of Navarre's maternal uncle), Charles of Valois (Philip's uncle) and Charles, Count of La Marche (Philip's brother). Sony VAIO PCG-41112M Battery

However, Philip was able to negotiate them into silence; Philip's uncle and brother may have realized that this would bring them closer to the throne, while the Duke of Burgundy married Philip's eldest daughter, Joan III, Countess of Burgundy. Up until that time, all fiefs in France passed by cognatic primogeniture, a system of inheritance whereby the oldest child inherited irrespective of gender. Sony VAIO PCG-7153M Battery

Philip had to provide justification why the French throne should pass in a different manner. For this, Philip exalted the throne of France to be equal to that of the Holy Roman Emperor and thePapacy — an office that could be entrusted to men only. The principle that a woman could not reign in France was confirmed when Philip himself died leaving only daughters, Sony VAIO PCG-71312M Battery

and the next brother, Charles the Fair (Charles IV), succeeded unchallenged.

Charles IV died in 1328, also only leaving daughters; the nearest male in line to the throne was Edward III of England.^[5] The French nobility, however, balked at the prospect of being ruled by the king of England. Sony VAIO PCG-7144M Battery

Edward had inherited his right through his mother Isabella, the sister of the dead king; but the question arose of whether she should be able to transmit a right that she did not possess. An assembly of the French aristocracy decided the nearest heir through male ancestry was Charles IV's first cousin, Philip, Count of Valois, and that he should be crowned Philip VI. Sony VAIO PCG-7191L Battery

In the 11th century, Gascony had been incorporated into Aquitaine (also Guyenne or Guienne) and formed with it the province of Guyenne and Gascony (French: Guyenne-et-Gascogne). The English kings became dukes of Aquitaine; after Henry II married Eleanor of Aquitaine in 1152, the lands were held in vassalage to the French crown. Sony VAIO PCG-3C1M Battery

By the 13th century the terms Aquitaine, Guyenne and Gascony were virtually synonymous.^[7][8] At the beginning of Edward III's reign, the only part of Aquitaine that remained in English hands was the duchy of Gascony. The term Gascony came to be used for the territory held by the English in south west France, although they still used the title Duke of Aquitaine. Sony VAIO PCG-3F1M Battery

For the first 10 years of Edward III's reign, Gascony had been a major point of friction. The English argued that, as Charles IV had not acted in a proper way towards his tenant holding fealty towards him, then the English should be able to hold the duchy free of any French suzerainty. Sony VAIO PCG-3H1M Battery

However, this line of argument could not be maintained by the English, so in 1329 Edward III paid homage to the new French king, Philip VI. Despite this concession the French continued to put pressure on the English administration in Gascony.^[10] Sony VAIO PCG-3J1M Battery

Gascony was not the only factor behind the Hundred Years' War. One of Edward's influential advisers was Robert III of Artois. Robert was an exile from the French court, having fallen out with Philip VI over an inheritance claim. He urged Edward to start a war to reclaim the Kingdom of France and was able to provide extensive intelligence on the French court to the English. Sony VAIO PCG-8141M Battery

The kings of England had been trying to subjugate the Scots for some time. In 1295 there was a treaty between France and Scotland, during the reign of Philip the Fair. Charles IV formally renewed the treaty in 1326, undertaking that if England invaded Scotland then France would take steps to support Scotland. Similarly the Scots would support the French, in the event that England attacked France. Sony VAIO PCG-8161M Battery

Thus, Edward could not succeed in his plans for Scotland, while they could count on French support.^[10]

Philip VI had assembled a large naval fleet off Marseilles as part of an ambitious plan for a crusade to the Holy Land. However the plan was abandoned, and the fleet including elements of the Scottish navy moved to the English Channel off Normandy in 1336, threatening England. Sony VAIO PCG-3C2M Battery

To deal with this crisis Edward proposed that the English raise two armies, one to deal with the Scots at a "suitable time", the other to proceed at once to Gascony. At the same time ambassadors were to be sent to France with a proposed treaty for the French king.^[12]

At the end of April 1337 Philip was invited to meet the delegation from England, but refused. Sony VAIO PCG-5N2M Battery

The arrière-ban, literally a call to arms, was proclaimed throughout France starting on 30 April 1337.^[13] Then, in May 1337, Philip met with his Great Council in Paris. It was agreed that the duchy of Aquitaine, effectively Gascony, should be taken back into the King's hands on the grounds that Edward III was in breach of his obligations as vassal; Sony VAIO PCG-5P1M Battery

also that he had sheltered the Kings 'mortal enemy' Robert d'Artois, and other unspecified reasons.^[13] Edward responded to the confiscation of Aquitaine by challenging Philip’s right to the French throne. When Charles VI had died there had been a claim for the succession of the French throne by Edward, through the right of his mother Isabella (Charles IV’s sister), daughter of Philip IV. Sony VAIO PCG-5S1M Battery

Any claim was seen to be invalidated by Edward's homage to Philip VI in 1329. However Edward now revived his claim, and in 1340 formally assumed the title 'King of France and the French Royal Arms'.^[14] On 26 January 1340, Edward III formally received homage from Guy, the half brother of the Count of Flanders. Sony VAIO PCG-9Z1M Battery

The civic authorities of Ghent, Ypres and Bruges proclaimed Edward as King of France. Edward's purpose was to strengthen his alliances with the Low Countries. His supporters would be able to claim that they were loyal to the "true" king of France and not rebels against Philip.^[14] In February 1340, Edward returned to England to try and raise more funds and also deal with political difficulties. Sony VAIO PCG-7171M Battery

Edward III had commanded that his Chancellor should sit on the woolsack in council as a symbol of the pre-eminence of the wool trade.^[15] At the time there was about 110,000 sheep in Sussex alone.^[16] The great medieval English monasteries produced large surpluses of wool, which were sold to Europe, Sony VAIO PCG-7186M Battery

and successive governments were able to make large amounts of money from taxation of the trade.^[15] France's sea power led to economic disruptions, with England having to cut down on the wool trade to Flanders and the wine trade from Gascony. Edward, with his fleet, sailed from England on 22 June 1340 and arrived, the next day, off the Zwyn estuary. Sony VAIO PCG-81112M Battery

The French fleet could be seen in a defensive formation off the port of Sluys. The English fleet apparently tricked the French into believing they were withdrawing. However, when the wind turned in the late afternoon, the English fleet attacked with the wind and sun behind them. The French fleet was almost completely destroyed in what became known as the Battle of Sluys. Sony VAIO PCG-31311M Battery

After this, England was able to dominate the English Channel for the rest of the war, preventing French invasions.^[14] At this point, Edward's funds ran out and the war probably would have come to an end, were it not for the death of the Duke of Brittany precipitating a succession dispute between the Duke's half brotherJohn of Montfort and Charles of Blois, nephew of Philip VI. Sony VAIO PCG-8152M Battery

In 1341, conflict over the succession to the Duchy of Brittany began the Breton War of Succession, in which Edward backed John of Montfort, and Philip backed Charles of Blois. Action for the next few years focussed around a back and forth struggle in Brittany, with the city of Vannes changing hands several times, as well as further campaigns in Gascony with mixed success for both sides. Sony VAIO PCG-31111M Battery

In July 1346, Edward mounted a major invasion across the Channel, landing in the Cotentin. The English army captured Caen in just one day, surprising the French who had expected the city to hold out much longer. Philip gathered a large army to oppose Edward, who chose to march northward toward the Low Countries, pillaging as he went, rather than attempting to take and hold territory. Sony VAIO PCG-61111M Battery

Finding himself unable to outmanoeuvre Philip, Edward positioned his forces for battle, and Philip's army attacked. The Battle of Crécy was a complete disaster for the French, largely credited to the English longbowmen and the French king, who allowed his army to attack before they were ready.^[18] Philip appealed to his Scottish allies to help with a diversionary attack on England. Sony VAIO PCG-51112M Battery

King David II of Scotland responded by invading northern England, but he was captured and his army defeated at theBattle of Neville's Cross, on 17 October 1346. This greatly reduced the threat from Scotland.^[17][19] In France, Edward was able to proceed north unopposed and besieged the city of Calais on the English Channel, capturing it in 1347. Sony VAIO PCG-51211M Battery

This became an important strategic asset for the English. It allowed them to keep troops in France safely.^[18] Calais would remain under English control until the successful French siege in 1558.^[20]

In 1348, the Black Death began to ravage Europe.^[21] In 1356, after it had passed and England was able to recover financially, Sony VAIO PCG-51212M Battery

Edward's son and namesake, thePrince of Wales, known as the Black Prince, invaded France from Gascony, winning a great victory in the Battle of Poitiers.^[17] John II of France (known as John the Good) was captured on the field of battle and eventually taken to England. In his absence John's son the Dauphin (later to become Charles V of France) took over as regent. Sony VAIO PCG-41111M Battery

After the Battle of Poiters, chaos ruled in town and country, many of the French nobles and mercenaries went on the rampage. A contemporary report said:

all went ill with the kingdom and the State was undone. Thieves and robbers rose up everywhere in the land. Sony VAIO PCG-41111V Battery

The Nobles despised and hated all others and took no thought for usefulness and profit of lord and men. They subjected and despoiled the peasants and the men of the villages. In no wise did they defend their country from it's enemies; rather did they trample it underfoot, robbing and pillaging the peasants' goods..." Sony VAIO PCG-61412V Battery

Then, in 1358, according to the French medieval chronicler Jean Froissart, as there was no leadership in the countryside, people revolted against the French nobility, who they accused of shaming the realm. The revolt became known as the Jacquerie.

Edward invaded France, for the third and last time, hoping to capitalise on the discontent and seize the throne. Sony VAIO PCG-71112M Battery

The Dauphin's strategy was that of non-engagement with the English army in the field. However Edward wanted to be crowned King of France, and chose the cathedral city of Reims as the place of his coronation (Reims being traditionally where the Kings of France were crowned). However, the citizens of Reims were able to build and reinforce the defences of the city before Edward and his army arrived.Sony VAIO PCG-81111V Battery

Edward besieged the city for five weeks, the defences held out and there was no coronation.^[26] Edward moved on to Paris, but retreated after a few skirmishes in the suburbs. The French made contact with him and forced him to negotiate.^[28]Edward III, of England and John II, of France, negotiated the Treaty of Brétigny which was signed in 1360. Sony VAIO PCG-81111V Battery

The treaty gave Edward enlarged sovereignty over Aquitaine, in return for abandoning his claim to the throne of France.

John II had been held captive in England, the Treaty of Brétigny set his ransom at 3 million crowns. John's son Louis of Anjou stood in as a replacement hostage at English held Calais, while John returned to France to try and raise funds to pay off the ransom. Sony VAIO PCG-81212M Battery

When Louis escaped in 1362 John gave himself up and returned to captivity in England.^[22]

The French crown had been at odds with Navarre since 1354 and in 1363 the Navaresse used John II's captivity in London and the political weakness of the dauphine to try and seize power.^[31] Although there was no formal treaty in place, Sony VAIO PCG-81212V Battery

Edward III supported the Navaresse moves particularly as there was a prospect that he might get control over the northern and western provinces as a consequence. With this in mind Edward deliberately slowed the peace negotiations.^[32] In 1364 John II died in London, while still in honorable captivity. Charles V succeeded him as king of France. Sony VAIO PCG-51111M Battery

On 6 May 1364, one month after the dauphine's accession and three days before his coronation as Charles V, the Navaresse suffered a crushing defeat at the Battle of Cocherel.^[34]

The Treaty of Brétigny had made Edward renounce his claim to the French crown. At the same time, it greatly expanded his territory in Aquitaine and confirmed his conquest of Calais. Sony VAIO VPCS13X9E/B battery

The ratified version, the Treaty of Calais, had one small difference: the exchange of renunciations would happen after the territorial exchanges, not immediately, as had been stated in the Treaty of Brétigny.

In 1366 there was a civil war of succession in Castile the ruler, Peter of Castile's forces, was pitched against those of his half brother Henry of Trastámara. Sony VAIO VPCS12V9E/B battery

The English crown supported Peter and the French Henry. The French forces were led by Bertrand du Guesclin, a Breton, who rose from relatively humble beginnings to prominence as one of France's war leaders. Charles V provided a force of 12,000, with du Guesclin at their head, to support Trastámara in his invasion of Castile.^[ Sony VAIO VPCS12V9E/B battery

Peter appealed to the Black Prince, for help, but none was forthcoming so Peter had to escape to exile in Aquitaine. The Black Prince had previously agreed that he would support Peter's claims but being concerned about the terms of the treaty of Brétigny he assisted Peter as a representative of Aquitaine, not England and led an Anglo-Gascon army into Castille. Sony VAIO VPCF13M8E/B battery

Peter was restored to power after Henry du Trastámara's army was defeated at the Battle of Najera.^[36]

Although the Castilians had agreed to fund the Black Prince for his help, none was forthcoming, the prince was also was suffering from ill health so returned with his army to Aquitaine. Then to pay off the debts incurred during the campaign in Castille, the prince instituted a hearth tax in Aquitaine. Sony VAIO VPCF13Z0E/B battery

Arnaud-Amaniieu VIII, lord of Albret had fought on the Black Prince's side during the war. Albret, who already had become discontented by the influx of English administrators into the enlarged Aquitaine, refused to allow the tax to be collected in his lordship. He then joined a group of Gascon lords who appealed to Charles V for support in their refusal to pay the tax. Sony VAIO VPCM13M1E/L battery

Charles V summoned one Gascon lord and also the Black Prince to hear the case in his Parlement in Paris. The Black Prince's answer was that he would go to Paris with sixty thousand men behind him. War broke out again, and Edward III resumed the title of King of France.^[37] Charles V declared that all the English possessions in France were forfeited, and before the end of 1369 all Aquitaine was in full revolt. Sony VAIO VPCM13M1E/W battery

With the Black Prince gone from Castille, Henry du Trastámara led a second invasion that ended with Peter's death at theBattle of Montiel in March 1369. The new Castilian regime then went on to provide naval support to French campaigns against Aquitaine and England.^[36]

With his health continuing to deteriorate the Black Prince returned home to England in January 1371,Sony VAIO VPCF22M1E battery

where by now his father Edward III was elderly and also in poor health. The prince's illness was debilitating and limited what he could do. He died on the 8 June 1376.^[39] Edward III only just outlived his son and died the following year 21 June 1377;^[40] he was succeeded by the Black Prince's second son Richard II who was still a child.^[41] Sony VAIO VPCF11M1E/H battery

The treaty at Brétigny had seen Edward III and England with enlarged holdings in France, however a small professional French army under the leadership of du Guesclin pushed the English back and by the time of Charles V's death in 1380, the English only held Calais.^[42] Sony VAIO VPCF13M0E/B battery

It was usual to appoint a regent in the case of a child monarch, but no regent was appointed for Richard II who nominally exercised all the power of kingship from the date of his accession in 1377.^[41] However, between 1377 and 1380 Richard's government was in the hands of a series of councils. The political community preferred this to a regency led by the king's uncle, John of Gaunt, yet Gaunt remained highly influential.^[41] Sony VAIO VPCYB2M1E battery

Richard had to face many challenges during his reign including the Peasants' Revolt led by Wat Tyler in 1381, an Anglo-Scottish war in 1384-1385, then a group of noblemen known as the Lords Appellant took over government between 1387 and 1389. His attempts to raise taxes to pay for his Scottish adventure and also the cost for the protection of Calais against the French made him increasingly unpopular. Sony VAIO VPCYB3V1E battery

In 1399, after John of Gaunt died, Richard II disinherited Gaunt's son, Henry of Bolingbroke, who had previously been exiled. Bolingbroke returned to England in June 1399 and with his supporters managed to depose Richard; he then had himself crowned Henry IV.^[41] One of the causes of Richard's unpopularity had been his reluctance to continue the war in France. Sony VAIO VPCY11M1E battery

Henry was aware of this, and planned to resume hostilities. However this did not happen, as he was plagued with financial problems, declining health and was kept busy putting down rebellions.^[43][44]

In Scotland, the change in regime in England prompted a fresh series of border raids which were countered by an invasion in 1402 and the defeat of a Scottish army at the Battle of Homildon Hill.^[ Sony VAIO VPCS12L9E/B battery

A dispute over the spoils of this action between Henry and Henry Percy, 1st Earl of Northumberland resulted in a long and bloody struggle between the two for control of northern England, which was resolved only with the almost complete destruction of the Percy family by 1408.^[46][47] Sony VAIO VPCF11S1E/B battery

In Wales, Owain Glyndŵr was declared prince of Wales on 16 September 1400, he was acknowledged as the leader of the most serious and widespread rebellion against English authority in Wales since the conquest of 1282–3. The rebellion was not finally put down until 1415 and actually resulted in Welsh semi-independence for a number of years.^[48] Sony VAIO VPCYB3V1E/R Battery

In the meantime Charles VI of France was descending into madness, and an open conflict for power began between his cousin John the Fearless, and his brother,Louis of Orléans. After Louis's assassination, the Armagnac family took political power in opposition to John. By 1410, both sides were bidding for the help of English forces in a civil war.^[44] Sony VAIO VPCF23P1E Battery

Throughout this period, England was also faced with repeated raids by pirates, which heavily damaged trade and the navy. There is some evidence that Henry IV used state-legalised piracy as a form of warfare in the English channel. He used these privateering campaigns to put pressure on enemies without the risk of open war.^[49] Sony VAIO VPCF23N1E Battery

The French responded in kind and French pirates operating under Scottish protection, raided many English coastal towns.^[50]

The domestic and dynastic difficulties faced by England and France in this period quieted the war for a decade.^[50] Sony VAIO VPCY21S1E/L Battery

Rousseff's coalition

Rousseff's coalition, For Brazil to keep on changing, was initially formed by nine political parties, which gave her the largest amount of time for advertisement on television. Sony VAIO VGN-SR190PAB Battery

This was the first time that PT got more television time than its main rival, the Brazilian Social Democracy Party (PSDB). However, according to electoral law, television time had to be equal on the run-off. Rousseff's ads were noted for their professionalism and production quality,^[76] being rated as the best electoral program by 56% of voters. Sony VAIO VGN-SR190PCB Battery

Rousseff's candidacy was also supported by notable international figures, such as Puerto Rican actor Benicio del Toro,^[78]First Secretary of the French Socialist Party Martine Aubry,^[79] and American filmmaker Oliver Stone, who recorded a message on her behalf.^[80] Singer Alcione,^[81] Portuguese Brazilian economist Maria da Conceição Tavares, Sony VAIO VGN-SR190PFB Battery

and journalist Hildegard Angel (daughter of Zuzu Angel and sister of Stuart Angel)^[83] also recorded messages on Rousseff's behalf. On 15 October, Tom Morello posted a message on his Twitter account supporting her candidacy, seen by him as representing "the poor, the working class and the youth." Sony VAIO VGN-SR19VN Battery

On 18 October 2010, Brazilian artists and intellectuals held an event in the Oi Casagrande theatre in Leblon, Rio de Janeiro, in order to show their support to Rousseff's candidacy. Among them were Chico Buarque, Beth Carvalho, Alceu Valença, Elba Ramalho, Emir Sader, Oscar Niemeyer, Leonardo Boff, and Marilena Chaui. Sony VAIO VGN-SR19VN Battery

That same day, she received a letter of support by prominent members of the European Green Party, such as Daniel Cohn-Bendit, Dominique Voynet, Monica Frassoni, Philippe Lamberts, Noël Mamère,José Bové, and Yves Cochet.^[86] According to the letter, Serra represents "the worst in our society: Sony VAIO VGN-SR19VRN Battery

gender bias, sexism and homophobia, along with the most shady and myopic economic interests."^[86]

Brazilian newspaper Brasil de Fato, as well as magazine CartaCapital both declared support for Rousseff's candidacy.Rousseff won the Presidency by an approximate margin of 56% to 44%, and took office on 1 January 2011, as the first woman president of the country. Sony VAIO VGN-SR19XN Battery

She became the third female head of government ever in the history of Brazil, and the first de facto female head of state since the death of Maria I, Queen of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves in 1816.

During her presidential campaign, Rousseff underwent a makeover, replacing glasses with contact lenses, undergoing plastic surgery and adopting a different hairstyle. Sony VAIO VGN-SR19XN Battery

Bulgarian reaction

According to state-owned Bulgarian media, Bulgaria experienced "Dilma fever."^[91][92] The local media followed the presidential race in Brazil closely, interested in the election of a half-Bulgarian to rule over the 7th largest economy in the world. Sony VAIO VGN-SR210J/S Battery

In an interview for the 24 Hours newspaper, Rousseff said that she "feel[s] tenderness and love for Bulgaria. I can even say that to a certain extent I do feel like I am Bulgarian, even though I have never been in the country where my father was born. My father died when I was only fifteen years old and I did not have the chance to learn Bulgarian." Sony VAIO VGN-SR21M/S Battery

On November 2010, an exhibition was held in Gabrovo about Rousseff's origins.^[94]

After Rousseff's election, Bulgarian Prime Minister Boyko Borisov promptly invited her for an official visit to the country. During her inauguration, he reiterated the invitation.^[95] Since her inauguration, Rousseff has received 21 letters from Bulgarian citizens. Sony VAIO VGN-SR21RM/H Battery

Dilma Rousseff was inaugurated as President of Brazil on 1 January 2011. The event – which was organized by her transitional team, the Ministries of External Relations and Defense and the Presidency of the Republic– was awaited with some expectation, since she became the first woman ever to preside over the country. Sony VAIO VGN-SR21RM/S Battery

Important female figures in Brazilian history were honored with panels spread across the Monumental Axis.^[98] According to the Military Police of the Federal District, around 30,000 people attended.^[99]

Until 21 December 2010, the publishing house of the Senate had printed 1,229 invitations for Rousseff's inauguration.^[100] The National Congress expected a total of 2,000 guests for the ceremony. Sony VAIO VGN-SR220J/B Battery

As reported by the press, between 14 and 17 heads of state and government had confirmed their presence.^[101][102] Among them were José Sócrates,^[103] Juan Manuel Santos, Mauricio Funes, Alan García,José Mujica, Hugo Chávez, Álvaro Colom, Alpha Condé, Sebastián Piñera, Evo Morales,^[101] (later canceled due to last minute protests in his country) and Boyko Borisov. Sony VAIO VGN-SR220J/H Battery

U.S. President Barack Obama sent Secretary of State Hillary Rodham Clinton to represent him.^[101][104] Former Japanese Prime Minister Taro Aso also attended.^[101]

In addition to the formal ceremony, Rousseff's inauguration also featured concerts by five female Brazilian singers: Sony VAIO VGN-SR240J/B Battery

Elba Ramalho, Fernanda Takai, Mart'nália and Zélia Duncan, and Gaby Amarantos.^[105] The Ministry of Culture organized the cultural part of the event, having provided a budget of 1.5 million reais (around 0.8 million U.S. dollars) for it.^[105] The concerts started at 10:00 am and stopped at 2:00 pm, with the start of the official inauguration ceremony. Sony VAIO VGN-SR240N/B Battery

The concerts continued from 6:00 to 9:00 pm.^[106] Rousseff did not attended, as she held a reception at the Itamaraty Palace for foreign authorities attending her inauguration.^[106] Each foreign authority had the opportunity to talk to her for 30 seconds.

“Besides representing my dear Brazil, I feel, here, today that I stand representing all women in the world, Sony VAIO VGN-SR290JTH Battery

those who suffer from hunger and cannot provide food to their children, those who suffer violence both at their job and in their family lives and those who have been bold and conquered the power that allows me to be here today.” (A remarkable part of Dilma Roussef’s speech at the 66th opening ceremony of the United Nation’s general assembly. She received thunderous applause by many delegations.) Sony VAIO VGN-SR290JTJ Battery

On 17 December 2010, Rousseff received from the Supreme Electoral Court a diploma attesting her victory in the 2010 presidential election, becoming the first woman in the history of Brazil to receive it.^[107] She was unable to name all members of her cabinet until that ceremony, as she had desired. Sony VAIO VGN-SR290JTQ Battery

Rousseff completed the appointment of all 37 members of her cabinet on 22 December 2010.^[109] Although she had projected that 30% of her cabinet would be composed of women,^[110][111]the females appointed eventually made up 24% of her cabinet. Rousseff's own Workers' Party (PT) comprised 43% of her cabinet, Sony VAIO VGN-SR290JVB/C Battery

with 16 members, while 12 other offices were handed out to six out of ten political parties that formed her winning electoral coalition. The remaining 9 cabinet offices, among which were key offices such as the Presidency of the Central Bank of Brazil, the Ministry of External Relations and the Ministry of the Environment, were handed out to non-partisan technical names.^[109] Sony VAIO VGN-SR290JVH/C Battery

Since she took office, Rousseff has changed the members of her cabinet members four times.^[112] She has become the President which promoted the highest number of cabinet changes in the first six months of government.^[112] On 7 June 2011, Rousseff's then Chief of Staff and influential PT leader, Sony VAIO VGN-SR290NTB Battery

Antonio Palocci resigned from office due to a scandal involving his personal wealth evolution.^[112] On the same day, Paraná Senator Gleisi Hoffmann (also from PT) replaced him.^[112] Three days later, Ideli Salvatti – former Santa Catarina Senator for PT and Minister of Fishing and Aquaculture up until then – traded office with Luiz Sérgio –Sony VAIO VGN-SR29VN/S Battery

former mayor of Angra dos Reis and licensed federal deputy for Rio de Janeiro (both for PT) and Secretary of Institutional Relations up until that moment.^[112]On 6 July, Alfredo Nascimento, then Minister of Transportation, left office after allegations that public works were being overbilled.^[112] Sony VAIO VGN-SR29XN/S Battery

On 4 August, Nelson Jobim left the Ministry of Defense after an interview he gave to the Piauí magazine criticizing both Hoffmann and Salvatti.^[113] Rousseff named Celso Amorim to replace him.^[113] Jobim had previously declared to have voted on José Serra for President.^[113] With the changes, the female presence in the cabinet increased to 26%, while the PT presence increased to almost 45%.Sony VAIO VGN-SR2RVN/S Battery

Rousseff's presidency has seen a concerted push to complete a number of hydroelectric dam projects in the Amazon River Basin, despite appeals from residents of areas that would be flooded, drained or otherwise affected, including indigenous tribes, and pressure from both domestic and international groups to abandon such projects. Sony VAIO VGN-SR390NAB Battery

Opposition to the dam projects, especially the Belo Monte Dam project, is driven by environmental, economic and human rights concerns, the latter concerning both the people to be displaced by the projects and the workers brought in from other parts of Brazil to build the dams. Sony VAIO VGN-SR390NAH Battery

Xingu (Kayapo) Chief Raoni Metuktire, along with members of other tribes that will be affected by hydroelectric dam projects proposed or already under construction;^[114] NGOs based both in Brazil^[115] and internationally, including Greenpeace,^[116] Amazon Watch^[117] and International Rivers;^[118] Sony VAIO VGN-SR41M/P Battery

and international celebrities including director James Cameron, actress Sigourney Weaver, and musician Sting^[119] are all calling for the Amazon Basin hydroelectric projects to be halted.

Working conditions for laborers involved in these projects – which Rousseff has insisted should continue, and even be accelerated, Sony VAIO VGN-SR41M/S Battery

with some sites seeing multiple work shifts so that construction can continue more than twenty hours per day – are harsh, while pay is low despite high cost of living at the remote construction sites. This has led to strikes and other worker actions at the sites of several hydroelectric projects. Sony VAIO VGN-SR49VN/H Battery

In spring of 2012, 17 000 workers at the Jirau Dam site went on strike for over three weeks, and later some began setting fire to dam structures and looting company stores, and even destroying some worker housing. Military troops were eventually deployed to quell the rioting and end the labor strike.^[120] Sony VAIO VGN-SR51B/P Battery

Meanwhile, multiple courts, offices and state governments continue to pursue judicial means of halting dam projects, with the status of the Belo Monte project having been reversed so many times via injunctions and appeals that only the Brazilian Supreme Federal Court remains^[121] — along with, theoretically, theInter-American Court of Human Rights (CIDH), Sony VAIO VGN-SR51B/S Battery

which is the judicial body of the Organization of American States (OAS), and has also called on Brazil to halt Belo Monte and other projects which are accused of human rights violations; but President Rousseff has already recalled the Brazilian ambassador to the OAS, and furthermore is withholding Brazil's annual contribution to the CIDH, approximately US$800 000.^[122] Sony VAIO VGN-SR51MF Battery

Dilma is less popular with the Brazilian LGBT social movements than expected from a left-wing president, and an often cited reason is that there are many instances in the government's balance of power where disagreements with the right-wing factions may have side effects (for instance, despite the fact that Brazil is a secular state, Sony VAIO VGN-SR51MF/P Battery

religion in politics is openly discussed, with the best example being the bancada evangélica, a collective for the Evangelical andPentecostal Congressmen). While LGBT rights in Brazil are developing faster in the last ten years, including May 2011 Brazilian Supreme Federal Court's rules in a unanimous 10-0 decision, with one abstaintation, to legalise same-sex civil unions,^[123] Sony VAIO VGN-SR51MF/S Battery

in the same month a spokesperson for President Dilma Rousseff announced that she has suspended an upcoming distribution of sex education videos through the ministries of health and education, saying that the "anti-homophobia kits," as they are known, are "inappropriate for children" and do not offer an objective view of homosexuality. Sony VAIO VGN-SR51MF/W Battery

Most of it were stories about teenagers accepting their own transexualidade, as transsexualism is called in Brazil, or bisexuality, and it included a guide for teachers.

They were directed at high school classes, so that the average age of the Brazilian students presented to the kit would be between 14 and 18. Sony VAIO VGN-SR51MR Battery

Dilma further said in May 2011 that "[t]he government supports education as well the struggle against homophobic practices. However, it will not be allowed for any government body to make propaganda for sexual options", using the common albeit less educated and politically correct Portuguese term for sexual orientations.^[125] Sony VAIO VGN-SR59VG Battery

Since May 25, 2012, Dilma's government has been facing a number of strikes of public service employees, especially University Professors. Dilma has been inflexible, and the strike has left millions of students without classes for months.^[126] According to O Globo, a Rio de Janeiro newspaper, Dilma believes private sector jobs should be prioritized by her government's policies. Sony VAIO VGN-NW380F/S Battery

In October 2010, Rousseff was included in the Forbes' list of the most powerful people in the world, at the 16th position.^[128][129] She was the third best placed woman on the list, after Angela Merkel, Chancellor of Germany, and Sonia Gandhi, President of the Indian National Congress. In August 2011, Sony VAIO VGN-NW380F/T Battery

Rousseff was included in the Forbes' list of the most powerful women in the world, at the 3rd position, behind only Merkel and U.S. Secretary of State Hillary Rodham Clinton.^[130]She climbed from the 95th position on the 2010 list.^[131] Sony VAIO VGN-NW50JB Battery

On 20 September, she received a Woodrow Wilson Public Service Award at the Pierre Hotel in New York City, a distinction which was also given to her predecessor in 2009. On the following day, she became the first woman to open a session of the United Nations General Assembly.^[132] Rousseff was featured on the cover of Newsweek magazine on 26 September 2011. Sony VAIO VGN-NW51FB/N Battery

During her state visit to Bulgaria, on 5 October 2011, Rousseff was awarded Bulgaria’s highest state honour, the Order of Stara Planina. Sony VAIO VGN-NW51FB/W Battery,Sony VAIO VGN-NW70JB Battery,Sony VAIO VGN-NW71FB/N Battery