Sikkim (/ˈsɪkɨm/; Devanagari: सिक्किम, i.e. the "Goodly Region", or Shikim, Shikimpati or Sikkim;[1] Lepcha: Mayel Lyang;Limbu: Yuksom, "one of the fortified place";[2] Standard Tibetan: འབྲས་ལྗོངས་, Bras Ljongs, Denzong or Demojongs)[3] is alandlocked Indian state located in the Himalayan mountains. HP 448007-001 battery
The state borders Nepal to the west, China's Tibet Autonomous Region to the north and east, and Bhutan to the southeast, while the state of West Bengal lies to the south.[4] HP Pavilion DV7 battery
With around 607,000 inhabitants as of 2011, Sikkim is the least populous state in India and the second-smallest state after Goa in total area, covering approximately 7,096 km² (2,740 sq mi).[5] Sikkim is nonetheless geographically diverse due to its location in the Himalayas; HP DV6-1120SA battery
the climate ranges from subtropical to high alpine, and Kangchenjunga, the world's third-highest peak, is located on Sikkim's border with Nepal.[6] Sikkim is a popular tourist destination, owing to its culture, scenery and biodiversity. It also has the only open land border between India and China. Sikkim'scapital and largest city is Gangtok. HP DV6-1210SA battery
According to legend, the Buddhist saint Guru Rinpoche visited Sikkim in the 9th century, introduced Buddhism and foretold the era of the monarchy. Indeed, the Namgyal dynasty was established in 1642. Over the next 150 years, the kingdom witnessed frequent raids and territorial losses to Nepalese invaders. Compaq CQ50 battery
It allied itself with the British rulers of India, but was soon annexed by them. Later, Sikkim became a British protectorate, before merging with India following a referendum in 1975.
Sikkim is the only state in India with an ethnic Nepali majority.[7] Sikkim has 11 official languages: HP Pavilion DV8 battery
Nepali (which is its lingua franca), Bhutia, Lepcha, Limbu, Newari, Rai, Gurung, Mangar, Sherpa, Tamang and Sunwar.[8][9] English is taught in schools and used in government documents. The predominant religions are Hinduism and Vajrayana Buddhism. Sony VGP-BPS13 battery
Sikkim's economy is largely dependent on agriculture and tourism, and as of 2011 the state has the fourth-smallest GDP among Indian states,[10] although it is also among the fastest-growing.
Toponymy
The most widely accepted origin theory of the name Sikkim is that it is a combination of two Limbu words: HP DV9700 battery
su, which means "new", and khyim, which means "palace" or "house". The name is believed to be a reference to the palace built by the state's first ruler, Phuntsog Namgyal. The Tibetan name for Sikkim is Denjong, which means "valley of rice".[3] TheLepcha people, the original inhabitants of Sikkim, called it Nye-mae-el, meaning "paradise",[12] while the Bhutias call it Beyul Demazong, which means the hidden valley of rice.[12] Compaq CQ35-100 battery
In Hindu religious texts, Sikkim is known as Indrakil, the garden of the war god Indra.
The earliest historical mention of Sikkim is a record of the passage of the Buddhist saint Guru Rinpoche through the land in the 9th century. The Guru is reported to have blessed the land, introduced Buddhism, and foretold the era of monarchy that would arrive in Sikkim centuries later. Sony VGP-BPS11 battery
In the 14th century, according to legend,Khye Bumsa, a prince from the Minyak House in Kham in eastern Tibet, received adivine revelation instructing him to travel south to seek his fortunes. A fifth-generation descendant of Khye Bumsa, Phuntsog Namgyal, became the founder of Sikkim's monarchy in 1642, HP 6510B battery
when he was consecrated as the first Chogyal, or priest-king, of Sikkim by the three venerated lamas at Yuksom.[14]
Phuntsog Namgyal was succeeded in 1670 by his son, Tensung Namgyal, who moved the capital from Yuksom to Rabdentse. HP 6530B battery
In 1700, Sikkim was invaded by the Bhutanese with the help of the half-sister of the Chogyal, who had been denied the throne. The Bhutanese were driven away by the Tibetans, who restored the throne to the Chogyal ten years later. Between 1717 and 1733, the kingdom faced many raids by the Nepalese in the west and Bhutanese in the east, HP 6710B battery
culminating with the destruction of the capital Rabdentse by the Nepalese.[15] In 1791, China sent troops to support Sikkim and defend Tibet against the Gurkhas. Following Nepal's subsequent defeat, the Chinese Qing Dynasty established control over Sikkim.[16] HP NC4400 battery
Sikkim during the British Raj
Following the beginning of British rule in neighboring India, Sikkim allied with Britain against their common enemy, Nepal. The Nepalese attacked Sikkim, overrunning most of the region including the Terai. HP NC6000 battery
This prompted the British East India Company to attack Nepal, resulting in the Gurkha War of 1814.[18] Treaties signed between Sikkim and Nepal resulted in the return of the territory annexed by the Nepalese in 1817. However, ties between Sikkim and the British weakened when the latter began taxation of the Morang region. HP NC6100 battery
In 1849, two British physicians, Sir Joseph Dalton Hooker and Dr. Archibald Campbell, the latter being in charge of relations between the British and Sikkim governments, ventured into the mountains of Sikkim unannounced and unauthorised.[19] The doctors were detained by the Sikkim government, leading to a punitive British expedition against the kingdom, HP NC6200 battery
after which the Darjeeling district and Morang were annexed to British India in 1853. The invasion led to the Chogyal of Sikkim becoming a titular ruler under the directive of the British governor.[20] In 1890, Sikkim became a British protectorate, and was gradually granted more sovereignty over the next three decades.[21] HP NC6400 battery
After Indian independence
In 1947, when India became independent, a popular vote rejected Sikkim's joining the Indian Union, and Prime MinisterJawaharlal Nehru agreed to a special protectorate status for Sikkim. HP NW8200 battery
Sikkim came under the suzerainty of India, which controlled its external affairs, defence, diplomacy and communications, but Sikkim otherwise retained administrative autonomy. A state council was established in 1953 to allow for constitutional government under the Chogyal. HP NW8440 battery
Meanwhile, the Sikkim National Congress demanded fresh elections and greater representation for Nepalese in Sikkim. Palden Thondup Namgyal, the Chogyal at the time, proved to be extremely unpopular with the people, and in 1973, riots in front of the Chogyal's palace led to a formal request for protection from India. HP NX7400 battery
In 1975, the Prime Minister of Sikkim appealed to the Indian Parliament for Sikkim to become a state of India. In April, the Indian Armytook over the city of Gangtok and disarmed the Chogyal's palace guards. A referendum was held in which 97.5% of the electorate voted to join the Indian Union. HP NX8200 battery
On 16 May 1975, Sikkim became the 22nd state of the Indian Union, and the monarchy was abolished.[22] To enable the incorporation of the new state, the Indian Parliament amended the Indian Constitution. First, the 35th Amendment laid down a set of conditions that made Sikkim an "Associate State," a special designation not used by any other state. HP Pavilion DV8 Battery
Later, the 36th Amendment repealed the 35th Amendment, and made Sikkim a full state, adding its name to the First Schedule of the Constitution.[23]
In 2000, the seventeenth Karmapa, Urgyen Trinley Dorje, who had been confirmed by the Dalai Lama and accepted as a tulku by the Chinese government, escaped from Tibet, HP Pavilion DV8-1000 Battery
seeking to return to the Rumtek Monastery in Sikkim. Chinese officials were in a quandary on this issue, as any protests to India would mean an explicit endorsement of India's governance of Sikkim, which the Chinese still regarded as an independent state occupied by India. China eventually recognized Sikkim as an Indian state in 2003, on the condition that India accepted the Tibet Autonomous Region as a part of China.[24] HP Pavilion DV8-1000EB Battery
This mutual agreement led to a thaw in Sino-Indian relations.[25] New Delhi had originally accepted Tibet as a part of China in 1953 during the government of then-Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru.[26] On 6 July 2006, the Himalayan pass of Nathula in Sikkim was opened to cross-border trade.[27] HP Pavilion DV8-1001TX Battery
On 18 September 2011, a magnitude 6.9Mw earthquake struck Sikkim, killing at least 116 people in the state and in Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh and Tibet.[28] More than 60 people died in Sikkim alone, and the city of Gangtok suffered significant damage.[29]
Geography
Nestling as it does in the Himalayan mountains, the state of Sikkim is characterized by mountainous terrain. HP Pavilion DV8-1001XX Battery
Almost the entire state is hilly, with an elevation ranging from 280 metres (920 ft) to 8,585 metres (28,000 ft). The summit of Kangchenjunga - the world's third-highest peak - is the state's highest point, situated on the border between Sikkim and Nepal.[6] For the most part, the land is unfit for agriculture because of the rocky, precipitous slopes. HP Pavilion DV8-1002TX Battery
Battery However, some hill slopes have been converted into terrace farms. Numerous snow-fed streams have carved out river valleys in the west and south of the state. These streams combine into the major Teesta River and its tributary, the Rangeet, which flow through the state from north to south.[30] HP Pavilion DV8-1003TX Battery
About a third of the state is heavily forested.
The Himalayan mountains surround the northern, eastern and western borders of Sikkim. The Lower Himalayas, lying in the southern reaches of the state, are the most densely populated. HP Pavilion DV8-1005TX Battery
The state has 28 mountain peaks, more than 80 glaciers,[31] 227 high-altitude lakes (including the Tsongmo, Gurudongmar and Khecheopalri Lakes), five major hot springs, and more than 100 rivers and streams. Eight mountain passes connect the state to Tibet, Bhutan and Nepal.[32] HP Pavilion DV8-1007TX Battery
Sikkim's hot springs are renowned for their medicinal and therapeutic values. Among the state's most notable hot springs are those at Phurchachu, Yumthang, Borang, Ralang, Taram-chu and Yumey Samdong. The springs, which have a high sulphur content, are located near river banks; some are known to emit hydrogen.[33] HP Pavilion DV8-1009TX Battery
The average temperature of the water in these hot springs is 50 °C (122 °F).[34]
Geology
The hills of Sikkim mainly consist of gneissose and half-schistose rocks, producing generally poor and shallow brown clay soils. The soil is coarse, with large concentrations of iron oxide; HP Pavilion DV8-1010EL Battery
it ranges from neutral to acidic and is poor in organic and mineral nutrients. This type of soil tends to support evergreen anddeciduous forests.[35]
Most of Sikkim is covered by Precambrian rock, which is much younger in age than the hills. The rock consists of phyllites and schists, is highly susceptible to weathering and erosion. HP Pavilion DV8-1010ER Battery
This, combined with the state's heavy rainfall, causes extensive soil erosion and the loss of soil nutrients through leaching. As a result, landslides are frequent, often isolating rural towns and villages from the major urban centres.[36]
Climate
Sikkim's climate ranges from sub-tropical in the south to tundra in the northern parts. HP Pavilion DV8-1050EG Battery
The tundra-type region in the north is clad by snow for four months every year, and the temperature drops below 0 °C (32 °F) almost every night.[33] The peaks of north-western Sikkim are perpetually frozen.[37] Most of the inhabited regions of Sikkim, however, experience a temperate climate, with the temperatures seldom exceeding 28 °C (82 °F) in summer or dropping below 0 °C (32 °F) in winter; HP Pavilion DV8-1050EP Battery
the mean monthly summer temperature is 15 °C.[38] The state has five seasons: winter, summer, spring, autumn, and a monsoon season between June and September. The average annual temperature for most of Sikkim is around 18 °C (64 °F).
Sikkim is one of the few states in India to receive regular snowfall. HP Pavilion DV8-1050ES Battery
The snow line ranges from 20,000 feet in the north of the state to 16,000 feet in the south.[39] During the monsoon, heavy rains increase the risk of landslides. The record for the longest period of continuous rain in Sikkim is 11 days. In the northern region, because of the high altitude, temperatures can drop below −40 °C (−40 °F) in winter. HP Pavilion DV8-1080EA Battery
Fog affects many parts of the state during winter and the monsoons, making transportation perilous.[40]
Subdivisions
Sikkim has four districts, each overseen by a Central Government appointee, the district collector, who is in charge of the administration of the civilian areas of the districts. HP Pavilion DV8-1080ED Battery
The Indian Army has control over a large part of the state, as Sikkim forms part of a sensitive border area with the People's Republic of China. Many areas are restricted to foreigners, and official permits are needed to visit them.
The four districts are East Sikkim, West Sikkim, North Sikkim and South Sikkim. HP Pavilion DV8-1080EZ Battery
The district capitals are Gangtok, Geyzing, Mangan andNamchi respectively.[41] These four districts are further divided into subdivisions. Pakyong and Rongli are the subdivisions of the East district. Soreng is the subdivision of the West district. Chungthang is the subdivision of the North district. Ravongla is the subdivision of the South district.[42] HP Pavilion DV8-1090EF Battery
Flora and fauna
Sikkim is situated in an ecological hotspot of the lower Himalayas, one of only three among the ecoregions of India. The forested regions of the state exhibit a diverse range of fauna and flora. HP Pavilion DV8-1090EV Battery
Owing to its altitudinal gradation, the state has a wide variety of plants, from tropical species to temperate, alpine and tundra ones, and is perhaps one of the few regions to exhibit such a diversity within such a small area. Nearly 81% of the area of Sikkim comes under the administration of its forest department.[43] HP Pavilion DV8-1090EZ Battery
Sikkim has around 5,000 flowering plants, 515 rare orchids, 60 primula species, 36 rhododendron species, 11 oak varieties, 23 bamboo varieties, 16 conifer species, 362 types of ferns and ferns allies, 8 tree ferns, and over 424 medicinal plants.[44] A variant of the Poinsettia, locally known as "Christmas Flower", can be found in abundance in the mountainous state. HP Pavilion DV8-1093CA Battery
The orchid Dendrobium nobile is the official flower of Sikkim, while the rhododendron is the state tree.
Orchids, figs, laurel, bananas, sal trees and bamboo grow in the Himalayan subtropical broadleaf forests of the lower altitudes of Sikkim. HP Pavilion DV8-1099EO Battery
In the temperate elevations above 1,500 metres (4,900 ft) there are Eastern Himalayan broadleaf forests, where oaks, chestnuts, maples, birches, alders, andmagnolias grow in large numbers, as well as Himalayan subtropical pine forests, dominated by Chir pine.
The alpine-type vegetation is typically found between an altitude of 3,500 to 5,000 metres (11,500 to 16,000 ft). HP Pavilion DV8T Battery
In lower elevations are found juniper, pine,firs, cypresses and rhododendrons from the Eastern Himalayan subalpine conifer forests. Higher up are Eastern Himalayan alpine shrub and meadows, home to a broad variety of rhododendrons and wildflowers.
The fauna include the snow leopard,[45] the musk deer, the Himalayan Tahr, HP Pavilion DV8T-1000 Battery
the red panda, the Himalayan marmot, the serow, thegoral, the barking deer, the common langur, the Himalayan Black Bear, the clouded leopard,[46] the Marbled Cat, the leopard cat, the wild dog, the Tibetan wolf, the hog badger, the binturong, the jungle cat and the civet cat.[47] HP Presario 1200 series battery
Among the animals more commonly found in the alpine zone are yaks, mainly reared for their milk, meat, and as a beast of burden.
The avifauna of Sikkim include of the Impeyan pheasant, the crimson horned pheasant, the snow partridge, the snow cock, HP Presario 306 battery
thelammergeyer and griffon vultures, as well as golden eagles, quail, plovers, woodcock, sandpipers, pigeons, Old World flycatchers, babblers and robins. Sikkim has more than 550 species of birds, some of which have been declared endangered.[48]HP Armada e700 series battery
Sikkim also has a rich diversity of arthropods, many of which remain unstudied. As with the rest of India, the most studied group is that of the butterflies. Of approximately 1,438 butterfly species found in the Indian subcontinent, 695 have been recorded from Sikkim.[49] HP pf723a battery
These include the endangered Kaiser-i-hind, Yellow Gorgon and the Bhutan Glory.[50]
Economy
Sikkim's nominal state gross domestic product (GDP) was estimated at $730 million in 2010, constituting the fourth-smallest GDP of an Indian state.[10] The state's economy is largely agrarian, based on the terraced farming of rice[51] HP 346970-001 battery
and the cultivation of crops such as maize, millet, wheat, barley, oranges, teaand cardamom.[52] Sikkim has the highest production of cardamom in India, as well as the largest cultivated area of cardamom.[53] Because of its hilly terrain, and the lack of transport infrastructure, Sikkim lacks a large-scale industrial base. HP Presario m2000 battery
Brewing, distilling, tanning and watchmaking are the main industries, and are mainly located in the southern reaches of the state, primarily in the towns of Melli and Jorethang. Despite the state's minimal industrial infrastructure, Sikkim's economy has been among the fastest-growing in India since 2000, with the state's GDP expanding by over 13% in 2007 alone. Presario 700 battery
In recent years, the government of Sikkim has extensively promoted tourism. As a result, state revenue has increased 14 times since the mid-1990s.[54] Sikkim has furthermore invested in a fledgling gambling industry, promoting both casinos and online gambling. The state's first casino, the Casino Sikkim, opened in March 2009, and seven further casino licences are being considered by the state government.[55] HP 361742-001 battery
The Playwin lottery has been a notable success in the state.[56][57] In October 2009, the government of Sikkim announced plans to offer three online sports betting licences.[58] Among the minerals mined in Sikkim are copper, dolomite, talc, graphite, quartzite, coal, zinc and lead.[59] HP Presario r4000 series battery
The opening of the Nathula Pass on 6 July 2006, connecting Lhasa, Tibet to India, was billed as a boon for Sikkim's economy, though the expected financial benefits will be slow to arrive. The pass, closed since the 1962 Sino-Indian War, was an offshoot of the ancient Silk Road. HP Armada m700 battery
Sikkim currently does not have any airports or railheads because of its rough terrain. However, the state's first airport is expected to be ready by 2011 in Pakyong, 30 km (19 mi) away from Gangtok. The airport will be capable of operating ATRaircraft.[60] Currently, the closest operational airport to Sikkim is Bagdogra Airport, near the town of Siliguri in West Bengal.
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HP Pavilion DV9086EA Battery
The airport is about 124 km away from Gangtok. A regular helicopter service run by the Sikkim Helicopter Service connects Gangtok to Bagdogra; the flight is thirty minutes long, operates only once a day, and can carry 4 people.[61] The Gangtok helipad is the only civilian helipad in the state. HP Pavilion DV9087 Battery
Rail
Sikkim lacks significant railway infrastructure. The closest major railway stations are Siliguri and New Jalpaiguri in neighbouring West Bengal.[62] However, the New Sikkim Railway Project has been launched to connect the town of Rangpo in Sikkim with Sevoke. HP Pavilion DV9087EA Battery
The project is expected to be complete by 2015.[63][64] In addition, the Ministry of Railways has recently proposed plans for railway lines linking Mirik to Ranipool.[65]
Roads
National Highway 31A and National Highway 31 link Siliguri to Gangtok.[66] Sikkim National Transport runs bus and truck services. HP Pavilion DV9088 Battery
Privately run bus, tourist taxiand jeep services operate throughout Sikkim, and also connect it to Siliguri. A branch of the highway from Melli connects western Sikkim. Towns in southern and western Sikkim are connected to the hill stations of Kalimpong and Darjeeling in northern West Bengal.[67] The state is furthermore connected to Tibet by the mountain pass of Nathu La. HP Pavilion DV9088EA Battery
Demographics
Sikkim is India's least populous state, with 607,688 inhabitants as of 2011.[69] Sikkim is also one of the least densely populated Indian states, with only 86 persons per square kilometre. However, it has a high population growth rate, averaging 12.36% between 2001 and 2011. HP Pavilion DV9089 Battery
The sex ratio is 889 females per 1000 males, with a total of 321,661 males and 286,027 females recorded in 2011. With 50,000 inhabitants, the capital Gangtok is the only significant town in the mostly rural state; the urban population in Sikkim constitutes around 11.06% of the total.[42] HP Pavilion DV9089EA Battery
The per capita income in Sikkim stands at 11,356, which is one of the highest in the country.[70]
Ethnicity
The majority of Sikkim's residents are of Nepali ethnic origin. The native Sikkimese consist of the Bhutias, who migrated from the Kham district of Tibet in the 14th century, and the Lepchas, who are believed to have migrated from the Far East. HP Pavilion DV9090 Battery
Tibetansreside mostly in the northern and eastern reaches of the state. Migrant resident communities include Biharis, Bengalis andMarwaris, who are prominent in commerce in South Sikkim and Gangtok.[71]
Religion
Hinduism has been the state's major religion since the arrival of the Nepalis; HP Pavilion DV9090EA Battery
an estimated 60.93% of the total population are now adherents of the religion. Sikkim's second-largest religion is Buddhism, which accounts for 28.1% of the population. Sikkim has 75monasteries, the oldest dating back to the 1700s.[72]
Christians in Sikkim are mostly descendants of the Lepcha people who were converted by British missionaries in the late 19th century, HP Pavilion DV9091 Battery
and constitute around 6.6% of the population. Other religious minorities include Muslims of Bihari ethnicity and Jains, who account for roughly 1% each.[73] The traditional religions of the native Sikkimese account for much of the remainder of the population. Although tensions between the Lepchas and the Nepalese escalated during the merger of Sikkim with India in the 1970s, HP Pavilion DV9091EA Battery
there has never been any major degree of communal religious violence, unlike in other Indian states.
Languages
Nepali is the lingua franca of Sikkim, while Bhutia and Lepcha are spoken in certain areas. Englishand Hindi are also spoken and understood in most of Sikkim. HP Pavilion DV9092 Battery
Other languages include Dzongkha, Groma,Gurung, Limbu, Magar, Majhi, Majhwar, Nepal Bhasa, Rai, Sikkimese, Sherpa, Sunuwar, Tamang, Thulung,Tibetan, and Yakha.[76]
Culture
The Nepalese majority of Sikkim celebrate all major Hindu festivals, including Diwali and Dussera. HP Pavilion DV9092EA Battery
Traditional local festivals, such as Maghe Sankranti and Bhimsen Puja, are also popular.[77] Losar, Loosong, Saga Dawa, Lhabab Duechen, Drupka Teshi and Bhumchu are among the Buddhist festivals celebrated in Sikkim. During the Losar (Tibetan New Year), most offices and educational institutions are closed for a week.[78] HP Pavilion DV9095EU Battery
Sikkimese Muslims celebrate Eid ul-Fitr and Muharram.[79] Christmashas also been promoted in Gangtok to attract tourists during the off-season.[80]
Western rock music and Hindi songs have gained a wide following in Sikkim. Indigenous Nepali rock and Lepcha music are also popular.[81] HP Pavilion DV9095TX Battery
Sikkim's most popular sport are football and cricket, although hang gliding and river rafting have also grown popular as part of the tourism industry.[82]
Cuisine
Noodle-based dishes such as thukpa, chowmein, thanthuk, fakthu, gyathuk and wonton are common in Sikkim. HP Pavilion DV9095XX Battery
Momos – steameddumplings filled with vegetables, buff (buffalo meat) or pork and served with a soup – are a popular snack.[83] Beer,whiskey, rum and brandy are widely consumed.[84] Sikkim has the third-highest per capita alcoholism rate amongst all Indian states, behind Punjab andHaryana.[85] HP Pavilion DV9096EA Battery
Government and politics
Like all states of India, the head of Sikkim's state government is a governorappointed by the Central Indian Government. His/her appointment is largely ceremonial, and his/her main role is to oversee the swearing in of the Chief Minister. HP Pavilion DV9096XX Battery
The Chief Minister, who holds the real executive powers, is the head of the party or coalition garnering the largest majority in the state elections. The governor also appoints the cabinet ministers on the advice of the Chief Minister. Sikkim has a unicameral legislature like most other Indian states. HP Pavilion DV9097EA Battery
Sikkim is allocated one seat in each of both chambers of India's nationalbicameral legislature, the Lok Sabha, and the Rajya Sabha. There are a total of 32 state assembly seats including one reserved for the Sangha. The Sikkim High Court is the smallest high court in the country.[88]
In 1975, after the abrogation of Sikkim's monarchy, the Congress Party got the largest majority in the 1977 elections. HP Pavilion DV9097XX Battery
In 1979, after a period of instability, a popular ministry headed by Nar Bahadur Bhandari, leader of the Sikkim Sangram Parishad Party was sworn in. Bhandari held on to power in the 1984 and 1989 elections. In the 1994 elections Pawan Kumar Chamling from the Sikkim Democratic Front became the Chief Minister of the state. HP Pavilion DV9098 Battery
The party has since held on to power by winning the 1999 and 2004 elections.[20][61] It won all the 32 seats of the state assembly in 2009.[89]
In recent years, the Greater Nepal movement has proposed that the territory of Sikkim be returned to Nepal as part of the restitution of Nepalese lands seized by the British in the 19th and 20th centuries. HP Pavilion DV9098XX Battery
The movement's supporters claim that, as the 1815 Sugauli Treaty was voided by the 1950 Indo-Nepal Treaty of Peace and Friendship, the land on which the state of Sikkim exists legally belongs to Nepal.[90] However, this is largely a fringe viewpoint, lacking widespread support. HP Pavilion DV9099EA Battery
Infrastructure
Sikkim's roads are maintained by the Border Roads Organisation (BRO), an offshoot of the Indian army. The roads in South Sikkim and NH-31A are in relatively good condition, landslides being less frequent in these areas. HP Pavilion DV9099XX Battery
The state government maintains 1,857 kilometres (1,154 mi) of roadways that do not fall in the BRO jurisdiction.[42]
Sikkim receives most of its electricity from 19 hydroelectric power stations.[54] It has achieved 100% rural electrification.[91] HP Pavilion DV9075EU Battery
Power also obtained from the National Thermal Power Corporation and Power Grid Corporation of India.[92]However the voltage is unstable and voltage stabilisers are needed. Per capita consumption of electricity in Sikkim is 182 kWh. The state government has promoted biogas and solar power for cooking but these have received a poor response and are used mostly for lighting purposes.[93HP Pavilion DV9075LA Battery
] 73.2% of the total households have access to safe drinking water,[42] and the large number of streams assures sufficient water supply.
Media
The southern urban areas have English, Nepali and Hindi dailies. Nepali-language newspapers, as well as some English newspapers, are locally printed, whereas Hindi and English newspapers are printed in Siliguri. HP Pavilion DV9075XX Battery
Important local dailies and weeklies[94] are Hamro Prajashakti (Nepali daily), Himalayan Mirror (English daily), the Samay Dainik, Sikkim Express(English), Sikkim Now (English), Kanchanjunga Times (Nepali weekly), Pragya Khabar (Nepali weekly) and Himalibela. HP Pavilion DV9076 Battery
The regional editions of English newspapers include The Statesman and The Telegraph, which are printed in Siliguri, as well asThe Hindu and The Times of India, printed in Kolkata, which are received with a day's delay in the towns of Gangtok,Jorethang, Melli and Geyzing. Himalaya Darpan, a Nepali daily published in Siliguri, is one of the leading Nepali daily newspapers in the region. HP Pavilion DV9076EA Battery
The Sikkim Herald is an official weekly publication of the government. Online media covering Sikkim include the Nepali newspaper Himgiri, the English news portal Haalkhabar and the literary magazine Tistarangit. Avyakta,Bilokan, the Journal of Hill Research, Khaber Khagaj, Panda, and the Sikkim Science Society Newsletter are among other registered publications.[95] HP Pavilion DV9077 Battery
Internet cafés are well established in the district capitals, but broadband connectivity is not widely available. Satellite television channels through dish antennae are available in most homes in the state. Channels served are largely the same as those available in the rest of India, although Nepali-language channels are also available. HP Pavilion DV9077EA Battery
The main service providers include Dish TV, Doordarshan and Nayuma.
Education
Literacy in Sikkim is 69.68%, which breaks down into 76.73% for males and 61.46% for females. There are a total of 1157 schools, including 765 schools run by the State government, 7 central government schools and 385 private schools.[96] HP Pavilion DV9078 Battery
Twelve colleges and other institutions in Sikkim offer higher education. The largest institution is the Sikkim Manipal University of Technological Sciences, which offers higher education in engineering, medicine and management. It also runs a host of distance education programs[97] in diverse fields. HP Pavilion DV9078EA Battery
There are two state-run polytechnical schools, Advanced Technical Training Centre (ATTC) and Centre for Computers and Communication Technology (CCCT) in Sikkim which offer diploma courses in various branches of engineering. ATTC is situated at Bardang, Singtam and CCCT at Chisopani, Namchi. HP Pavilion DV9079 Battery
Sikkim University a central university, began operating in 2008 at Yangang, which is situated about 28 km fromSingtam.[98] Many students, however, migrate to Siliguri, Kolkata, Bangalore and other Indian cities for their higher education.
The Lepcha is the earliest ethnic group settled Sikkim. HP Pavilion DV9079EA Battery
The believe they are the autochthones while others considered that they were settled by the thirteenth century, coming from the Assam hills before the arrival of the TibetanBhutias.[1] The Bhutia who immigrated to Sikkim claimed descent from a common ancestor, a Khampa prince or chief named Khye-bum-sar, and were divided into fourteen main families.[2] HP Pavilion DV9080 Battery
Relations between the Lepcha and Tibetan peoples began in the thirteenth century with the signing of a blood brotherhood by the Lepcha Chief Thekong Tek and the Tibetan PrinceKhye Bumsa at Kabi Lungchok in north Sikkim. The Bhutias introduced Buddhism to the region.[2] HP Pavilion DV9080EA Battery
In 1642, the Bhutia established a monarchy headed by the Chogyal (Tibetan: ཆོས་རྒྱལ་, Wylie: chos rgyal; divine king), and opened relations with Tibet.[1] By the founding of the Bhutia monarchy, Tibetan sources considered Tibetans (Bhutia), Lepchas, and Limbus to be the "original races of the kingdom."[2] HP Pavilion DV9081 Battery
The Limbu people (also known as Tsong, Tshong, Subba, and Yakthungba) are a Kiranti people, and are also an indigenous group to populate Sikkim.[2]
Around 1819, the Lepchas were still the most numerous population, comprising roughly half of all Sikkimese, followed by Bhutias (30%) and Limbus (20%);HP Pavilion DV9081EA Battery
sources disagree on whether the Bhutias outnumbered the Limbu or vice-versa, but in any event, the Limbu frequently intermarried with the Lepcha.[2] At this time there was apparently no appreciable Nepali population present.
Throughout the nineteenth century, further groups of Tibetans known as Rui-chhung ("little families") migrated to Sikkim under British rule.[2] HP Pavilion DV9082 Battery
Between the 1890s and the early 1900s, the large scale immigration of Nepalis began, encouraged by colonial landlords in order to raise rents in otherwise densely forested Sikkim.[3][4] Indigenous groups pressed the British Empire to stop such settlement on Lepcha and Bhutia lands, however by the turn of the century, HP Pavilion DV9082EA Battery
the Nepalese population constituted a majority, and indigenous populations amalgamated into a composite Lepcha-Bhutia socio-ethnic group.[4] Discrimination between the heterogeneous Nepalese and other groups became a pressing social issue,[4] however the government of theChogyal in its later years strove to treat all subjects equally as citizens, and allowed democratic changes to move forward.[3] HP Pavilion DV9083 Battery
These democratic and demographic changes culminated in a plebiscite in 1974, resulting in union with India as a State.[3] Since joining India, indigenous groups have expressed anxiety over losing land, resources and power to those they view as non-Sikkimese "far above [them] in terms of political consciousness, resource position, education and manipulative qualities."[4]:79HP Pavilion DV9083EA Battery
Indigenous cultures
The indigenous Sikkimese show wide cultural variation. Limbu society is traditionally defined by norms, rituals, rites, and chumlung, social groups that convene to express views.[2]:29, 33 During rituals, dancing is a common element, and Limbu priests, called phedangma, HP Pavilion DV9084 Battery
recite oral narratives called mundhum.[2]:33 Traditionally, the Limbu practice chastity before marriage, and do not cohabitate before marrying.[2]:29 They tend to live inextended family groups, remaining at home after marriage; marriages are strictly exogamous, meaning intra-clan marriage is prohibited.[2]:29 HP Pavilion DV9084EA Battery
They therefore frequently adopt members of entirely different groups, encouraging religious marital conversion in the process.[2]:29 The Limbu use the Limbu script to write their language, which is related to that of the Lepcha.
The Lepcha speak Lepcha and use Lepcha script. Both the Lepcha and Limbu scripts are descended from the Tibetan script.[5] HP Pavilion DV9085 Battery
Traditionally, Lepcha men wear gadas and tie a patang, a kind of weapon, on their waist and don a bamboo cap; women wear distinctive dresses and ornaments.[6] Among Lepchas, there is a tradition of nuclear familystructure and of monogamous marriage; though divorce is relatively rare, widowed persons customarily remarry.[2] HP Pavilion DV9085EA Battery
Traditionally, the Lepcha practice a religion centered around shamans called mun, who officiate ceremonies and festivals, and bóngthíng, who are healers and are often female.[7] The Lepcha converted to Buddhism in the eighteenth century, though their beliefs are largely syncretic.[7] HP Pavilion DV9086 Battery
Bhutias speak Sikkimese, which is also referred to as Dranjongke, written in the Tibetan script, proper. Men and women wear bakhus, while for women only this is accompanied by a hongu (blouse) around which they tie a woolen cloth around their waist called pangden if they are married.[6][8] HP Pavilion DV9058EA Battery
On special occasions they wear a scarf called akhada, which has become common feature in the Sikkimese society and culture even among the Nepalese of Sikkim.[6]Historically, the Bhutia practiced polyandry before the nineteenth century; during the nineteenth century, wife-sharing among male siblings was also practiced, however neither tradition survives today. HP Pavilion DV9059 Battery
Marriage rituals are traditionally elaborate and festive, officiated by a village chief as opposed to a Buddhist lamas; late marriage and divorce are not uncommon practices among the Bhutia.[2]:30
Most Limbu, Lepcha, and Bhutia today practice local forms of Buddhism, incorporating aspects of Bön religion and animism, in contrast to the Hindu Nepalese majority.[2] HP Pavilion DV9059EA Battery
Followers of Buddhism in Sikkim are largely either Karmapaor Nyingma, though a small section of Bhutias claim to adhere to Bön in particular. Since the arrival of the Nepalese and Western missionaries, many Limbu have adopted Hinduism, and a few Lepchas have converted toChristianity. HP Pavilion DV9060EA Battery
The red panda (Ailurus fulgens, or shining-cat), is a small arboreal mammal native to the eastern Himalayas and southwesternChina.[2] It is the only extant species of the genus Ailurus. Slightly larger than a domestic cat, it has reddish-brown fur, a long, shaggy tail, and a waddling gait due to its shorter front legs. HP Pavilion DV9060US Battery
It feeds mainly on bamboo, but is omnivorous and may also eat eggs, birds, insects, and small mammals. It is a solitary animal, mainly active from dusk to dawn, and is largelysedentary during the day.
The red panda has been classified as Vulnerable by IUCN because its population is estimated at fewer than 10,000 mature individuals. HP Pavilion DV9061 Battery
Although red pandas are protected by national laws in their range countries, their numbers in the wild continue to decline mainly due to habitat loss and fragmentation, poaching, and inbreeding depression.[2]
The red panda has been previously classified in the families Procyonidae (raccoons) and Ursidae (bears), HP Pavilion DV9061EA Battery
but recent research has placed it in its own family Ailuridae, in superfamily Musteloidea along with Mustelidae and Procyonidae.[4] Two subspecies are recognized.
The head and body length of red pandas averages 56 to 63 cm (22 to 25 in), and their tails about 37 to 47 cm (15 to 19 in). Males weigh 3.7 to 6.2 kg (8.2 to 14 lb) and females 4.2 to 6.0 kg (9.3 to 13 lb).[5] HP Pavilion DV9062 Battery
They have long, soft reddish-brown fur on the upper parts, blackish fur on the lower parts, and a light face with tear markings and robustcranial-dental features. The light face has white badges similar to those of a raccoon, but each individual can have distinctive markings. Their roundish head has medium-sized upright ears, a black nose, and very dark eyes: HP Pavilion DV9062EA Battery
almost pitch black. Their long bushy tail with six alternating yellowish red transverse ochre rings provides balance and excellentcamouflage against its habitat of moss- and lichen-covered trees. The legs are black and short with thick fur on the soles of the paws. HP Pavilion DV9064 Battery
This fur serves as thermal insulation on snow-covered or ice surfaces and conceals scent glands which are also present on the anus.[6]
The red panda is specialized as a bamboo feeder with strong, curved and sharp semi-retractile claws [5] standing inward for grasping of narrow tree branches, leaves and fruit. HP Pavilion DV9064EA Battery
Like the giant panda, it has a “false thumb” that is an extension of the wrist bone. When descending a tree headfirst, the red panda rotates its ankle to control its descent, one of the few climbing species to do so.[7]
Distribution and habitat
The red panda is endemic to the temperate forests of the Himalayas, and ranges from the foothills of western Nepal to Chinain the east.[8] HP Pavilion DV9065 Battery
Its easternmost limit is the Qinling Mountains of the Shaanxi Province in China. Its range includes southernTibet, Sikkim and Assam in India, Bhutan, the northern mountains of Burma, and in southwestern China, in the Hengduan Mountains of Sichuan and the Gongshan Mountains in Yunnan. HP Pavilion DV9065EA Battery
It may also live in southwest Tibet and northern Arunachal Pradesh, but this has not been documented. Locations with the highest density of red pandas include an area in the Himalayas that has been proposed as having been a refuge for a variety of endemic species in the Pleistocene. HP Pavilion DV9066 Battery
The distribution range of the red panda should be considered disjunct, rather than continuous.[5] A disjunct population inhabits the Meghalaya Plateau of northeastern India.[9]
During a survey in the 1970s, signs of red pandas were found in Nepal's Dhorpatan Hunting Reserve.[10] HP Pavilion DV9066EA Battery
Their presence was confirmed in spring 2007 when four red pandas were sighted at elevations ranging from 3,220 to 3,610 m (10,560 to 11,840 ft).[11] The species' westernmost limit is in Rara National Park located farther west of the Dhorpatan Hunting Reserve.[12]Their presence was confirmed in 2008.[13] HP Pavilion DV9067 Battery
The red panda lives between 2,200 and 4,800 meters (7,200 and 15,700 ft) altitude, inhabiting areas of moderate temperature between 10 and 25 °C / 50 and 77 °F with little annual change. It prefers mountainous mixed deciduous and conifer forests, especially with old trees and dense understories of bamboo.[5][8] HP Pavilion DV9067EA Battery
The effective population size of the Sichuan population is larger and more stable than that of the Yunnan population, implying a southward expansion from Sichuan to Yunnan.[14]
In August 2010, archaeologists uncovered red panda fossil remains in Washington County in the US state of Tennessee. HP Pavilion DV9068 Battery
Although none are known to exist in the wild in North America today, it is believed the red panda thrived in the mountains of eastern Tennessee approximately 4.5 million years ago.[15]
The red panda has become extirpated from the Chinese provinces of Guizhou, Gansu, Shaanxi and Qinghai.[16] HP Pavilion DV9068EA Battery
Distribution of subspecies
Distribution of the red panda is disjointed, and there are two extant subspecies:
- Western red panda Ailurus fulgens fulgens (Cuvier, 1825) — lives in the western part of its range: in Nepal, Assam, Sikkim and Bhutan;
Styan's red panda Ailurus fulgens styani — lives in the east-northeastern part of its range: in southern China and northern Burma.[17] HP Pavilion DV9069 Battery
Ailurus fulgens styani has been described by Thomas in 1902 based on one skull from a specimen collected in Szechwan.[18] Pocock distinguished styani fromfulgens by its longer winter coat and more abundant blackness in the pelage, bigger skull, more strongly curved forehead, and more robust teeth. HP Pavilion DV9069EA Battery
His description is based on skulls and skins collected in Szechwan, Myitkyina close to the border of Yunnan, and Upper Burma.[6]
The Styan's red panda is supposedly larger and darker in color than its Western cousin, but there is considerable variation in both subspecies, and some individuals may be brown or yellowish brown rather than red.[8] HP Pavilion DV9071 Battery
The Brahmaputra river is often considered the natural division between the two subspecies, where it makes a curve around the eastern end of the Himalayas. Although some authors suggest that A. f. fulgens extends farther eastward, into China.
Behavior
Red pandas are territorial. Adults are solitary except during mating season. HP Pavilion DV9071EA Battery
They are generally quiet except for sometwittering, tweeting, and whistling communication sounds. They have been reported to be both nocturnal and crepuscular, sleeping on tree branches or in tree hollows during the day and increasing their activity in the late afternoon and early evening hours. HP Pavilion DV9072 Battery
They sleep stretched out on a branch with legs dangling when it is hot, and curled up with its tail over the face when it is cold.[5] They are very heat sensitive, with an optimal “well-being” temperature between 17 and 25 °C (63 and 77 °F), and cannot tolerate temperatures over 25 °C (77 °F). HP Pavilion DV9072EA Battery
Shortly after waking, red pandas clean their fur like a cat, licking their front paws and then rubbing their back, stomach and sides. They also rub their back and belly along the sides of trees or rocks. Then they patrol their territory, marking it with urine and a weak musk-smelling secretion from their anal gland. HP Pavilion DV9073 Battery
They search for food running along the ground or through the trees. Red pandas may alternately either use their forepaw to bring food to their mouth or place food directly into the mouth.[5]
Predators of the red panda include the snow leopard, martens (Mustelidae), and humans. HP Pavilion DV9073EA Battery
If they feel threatened or sense danger, they may try to escape by climbing a rock column or tree. If they can no longer flee, they stand on their hind legs to make themselves appear larger and use the sharp claws on their front paws to defend themselves.
Diet
Red pandas are excellent climbers, and forage largely in trees. HP Pavilion DV9074CL Battery
They eat mostly bamboo, and may eat small mammals, birds, eggs, blossoms, and berries. In captivity, they were observed to eat birds, blossoms, acer and morus leaves, bark and the fruits of acer, beech and morus.[5]
Like the Giant Panda, they cannot digest cellulose, so they must consume a large volume of bamboo to survive. HP Pavilion DV9074EA Battery
Their diet consists of about two-thirds bamboo, but they also eat mushrooms, roots, acorns, lichen, and grasses. Occasionally, they supplement their diet with fish and insects. They do little more than eat and sleep due to their low-calorie diet.HP Pavilion DV9075EA Battery
Bamboo shoots are more easily digested than leaves, exhibiting the highest digestibility in summer and autumn, intermediate digestibility in the spring, and lowest digestibility in the winter. These variations correlate with the nutrient contents in the bamboo. Red pandas process bamboo poorly, especially the cellulose and cell wall components. HP Pavilion DV9045 Battery
This implies that microbial digestion plays only a minor role in their digestive strategy. In order to survive on this poor-quality diet, they have to eat the high-quality sections of the bamboo plant such as the tender leaves and shoots in large quantities, over 1.5 kilograms / 3.3 pounds of fresh leaves and 4 kilograms / 8.8 pounds of fresh shoots daily. HP Pavilion DV9045EA Battery
This food passes through the digestive tract fairly rapidly (~2–4 hours) so as to maximize nutrient intake.[19]Red pandas can taste artificial sweeteners such as aspartame, the only known non-primate to be able to do so.[20]
Reproduction
Red pandas are able to reproduce at around 18 months of age, and are fully mature at 2–3 years. HP Pavilion DV9046 Battery
Adults rarely interact in the wild except to mate. Both sexes may mate with more than one partner during the mating season from mid-January to early March.[21] A few days before birth, females begin to collect material, such as brushwood, grass, and leaves, to build a nest, which is normally located in a hollow tree or a rock crevice. HP Pavilion DV9046EA Battery
After a gestation period of 112 to 158 days, the female gives birth in mid-June to late July to about one to four blind and deaf cubs weighing 110 to 130 grams (3.9 to 4.6 oz) each.[5]
After birth, the mother cleans the cubs and can then recognize each by their smell. At first, she spends 60% to 90% of her time with the cubs. HP Pavilion DV9047 Battery
After the first week, the mother starts spending more time outside the nest, returning every few hours to nurse and groom the cubs. She moves the young frequently among several nests, all of which she keeps clean. The cubs start to open their eyes at about 18 days of age. By about 90 days, they have achieved full adult fur and coloring, and begin to venture out of the nest. HP Pavilion DV9047EA Battery
They also start eating solid foods at this point, weaning at around 6–8 months of age. The cubs stay with their mother until the next litter is born in the following summer. Males rarely help raise the young, and only if they live in pairs or in small groups.[5]
The average lifespan is 8–10 years, but individuals have been known to reach 15 years. HP Pavilion DV9048 Battery
Threats
The primary threats to red pandas are direct harvest from the wild, live or dead, competition with domestic livestock resulting in habitat degradation, and deforestation resulting in habitat loss or fragmentation. HP Pavilion DV9048EA Battery
The relative importance of these factors is different in each region, and is not well understood.[8] For instance, in India the biggest threat seems to be habitat loss followed by poaching, while in China the biggest threat seems to be hunting and poaching.[2] A 40% decrease in red panda populations has been reported in China over the last 50 years, and populations in western Himalayan areas are considered to be lower.[16] HP Pavilion DV9049 Battery
Deforestation can inhibit the spread of red pandas and exacerbate the natural population subdivision by topography andecology, leading to severe fragmentation of the remaining wild population. Fewer than 40 animals in 4 separate groups share resources with humans in Nepal's Langtang National Park, where only 6% of 1,710 square kilometres (660 sq mi) is preferred red panda habitat. HP Pavilion DV9049EA Battery
Although direct competition for food with domestic livestock is not significant, livestock can depress bamboo growth by trampling.[22]
Small groups of animals with little opportunity for exchange between them face the risk of inbreeding, decreased genetic diversity, and even extinction. HP Pavilion DV9050 Battery
In addition, clearcutting for firewood or agriculture, including hillside terracing, removes old trees that provide maternal dens and decreases the ability of some species of bamboo to regenerate.[8]
In Southwest China, red pandas are hunted for their fur, especially for the highly valued bushy tails from which hats are produced.HP Pavilion DV9050EA Battery
In these areas, the fur is often used for local cultural ceremonies, and in weddings the bridegroom traditionally carries the hide. The "good-luck charm" red panda-tail hats are also used by local newlyweds.[16]
In the past, red pandas were captured and sold to zoos. HP Pavilion DV9051 Battery
Glatston reports that "in International Zoo News, Munro (1969) reported he personally had handled 350 red pandas in seventeen years."[23]
Thanks to CITES this number has decreased substantially in recent years, but poaching continues, and red pandas are often sold to private collectors at exorbitant prices. HP Pavilion DV9051EA Battery
In some parts of Nepal and India, red pandas are kept as pets.[24]
The red panda has a naturally low birth rate (usually single or twin births per year), and a high death rate in the wild.
Conservation
The red panda is listed in CITES Appendix I.[25] THP Pavilion DV9052 Battery
he species has been classified as vulnerable in the IUCN Red List since 2008 because the global population is estimated at about 10,000 individuals, with a decreasing population trend; only about half of the total area of potential habitat of 142,000 km² (55,000 sq mi) is actually being used by the species. HP Pavilion DV9052EA Battery
Due to their shy and secretive nature, and their largely nocturnal habits, observation of red pandas is difficult. Therefore, population figures in the wild are determined by population density estimates and not direct counts.[2]
Worldwide population estimates range from fewer than 2,500 individuals[21] to between 16,000 and 20,000 individuals.[9] HP Pavilion DV9053 Battery
In 1999, the total population in China was estimated at between 3,000 and 7,000 individuals.[16] In 2001, the wild population in India was estimated at between 5,000 and 6,000 individuals.[9] Estimates for Nepal indicate only a few hundred individuals.[26] There are no records from Bhutan or Burma. HP Pavilion DV9053EA Battery
Reliable population numbers are hard to find, partly because other animals have been mistaken for the red panda. For instance, one report from Burma stated that red pandas were still fairly common in some areas, and was accompanied by a photograph of a "red panda" as proof. The photograph in question depicted a species of civet.[27] HP Pavilion DV9054 Battery
The red panda is protected in all range countries, and hunting is illegal.[2] Beyond this, conservation efforts are highly variable between countries:
China has 35 protected areas covering about 42.4% of red panda habitat.[2] HP Pavilion DV9054EA Battery
India has 20 protected areas with known or possible red panda populations in Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh and West Bengalsuch as Khangchendzonga National Park, Namdapha National Park and Singalila National Park, and a coordinated conservation policy for the red panda.[2] HP Pavilion DV9055 Battery
- In Nepal, known populations occur in Langtang National Park, Sagarmatha National Park, Makalu Barun National Park, Rara National Park, Annapurna Conservation Area, Kanchenjunga Conservation Area, and in Dhorpatan Hunting Reserve.[28]
Bhutan has 5 protected areas that support red panda populations.[2] HP Pavilion DV9055EA Battery
- Burma has 26 protected areas, of which at least one or more host red panda populations.[2]
In situ initiatives
A community-managed forest in Ilam District of eastern Nepal is home to 15 red pandas who generate household income through tourism activities including home stay. HP Pavilion DV9056 Battery
Villagers in the high‐altitude areas of Arunachal Pradesh have formed the Pangchen Red Panda Conservation Alliance comprising five villages with a community‐conserved forest area of 200 km² (77 sq mi) at an altitude of 2,500 m (8,200 ft) to over 4,000 m (13,000 ft).[29]
In captivity
A red panda moves around its enclosure at the National Zoo in Washington, DC. HP Pavilion DV9056EA Battery
The red panda is quite adaptable to living in captivity, and is common in zoos worldwide. By 1992, there had been more than 300 births in captivity, and there were more than 300 individuals living in 85 institutions worldwide.[30] By 2001, there were 182 individuals in North American zoos alone.[31] HP Pavilion DV9057 Battery
As of 2006, the international studbook listed more than 800 individuals in zoos and parks around the world. Out of these, 511 individuals of subspecies fulgens were kept in 173 institutions[32] and 306 individuals of subspecies styani were kept in 81 institutions.[33]
The International Studbook is currently managed at the Rotterdam Zoo in the Netherlands. HP Pavilion DV9057EA Battery
In cooperation with the International Red Panda Management Group, they coordinate the Species Survival Plan in North America, the European Endangered Species Programme in Europe and other captive breeding programs in Australia, India, Japan and China. HP Pavilion DV9058 Battery
In 2009, Sarah Glass, Curator of red pandas and Special Exhibits at the Knoxville Zoo in Knoxville, Tennessee, was appointed as coordinator for the North American Red Panda Species Survival Plan. The Knoxville Zoo has the largest number of captive red panda births in the Western Hemisphere (101 as of August 2011). HP Pavilion DV9021XX Battery
Only the Rotterdam Zoo in the Netherlandshas had more captive births worldwide.[32][33]
Successes in red panda captive breeding includes:
The Padmaja Naidu Himalayan Zoological Park in Darjeeling, India, successfully released four captive bred red pandas to the wild in August and November 2003.[34] HP Pavilion DV9022EA Battery
- At the Edmonton Valley Zoo in Edmonton, Alberta, Canada, twins were born in 2007 and 2008, a single birth in 2009, and twins in 2010 (one died 9 September 2010)[35][36][37]
At the Denver Zoo in Denver, Colorado, twins were born in 2008 and quadruplets in 2009.[38] HP Pavilion DV9022TX Battery
- At the Red River Zoo in Fargo, North Dakota, twins were born in 2008 and triplets in 2009.[39] In 2011, Wei Da, one of the 2009 triplets born at the zoo, gave birth to triplets.[40]
Triplets in September 2009 at the Cleveland Metroparks Zoo in Cleveland, Ohio.[41] HP Pavilion DV9023 Battery
- Twins in June 2010 at the Kristiansand Zoo and Amusement Park in Kristiansand, Norway[42]
- Twins in June 2010 at the Zagreb Zoo in Zagreb, Croatia[43]
- Twins in May 2010 at the Calgary Zoo in Calgary, Alberta[44]
Twins in June 2011 at the National Zoo in Washington, D.C.[45] HP Pavilion DV9023US Battery
- Twins on July 4, 2011 at the Franklin Park Zoo (Zoo New England) in Boston, Massachusetts.[46]
Because the red panda is considered a very attractive animal, and is not much larger than a house cat, it would seem to be ideal for a pet. HP Pavilion DV9024 Battery
Despite this, and despite reports that Indira Gandhi kept red pandas as pets when she was a child, there does not seem to have ever been widespread adoption of these animals as pets.[47] Due to its listing in CITES Appendix I, obtaining a red panda as a pet would now be quite difficult. HP Pavilion DV9024EA Battery
Interestingly, due to the red panda's high levels of captive breeding and recent successful efforts of domestication by selective breeding of the red fox, domestication could be possible. However, because of their low tolerances for high temperature areas, the red panda if ever domesticated may not be suitable as pets in some areas or special care would be needed to keep them happy.HP Pavilion DV9030EA Battery
Though there is growing interest in the general public of the availability of this animal as a pet, there does not appear to be any person or group attempting to domesticate the red panda through any process including selective breeding. Domestication may also be a viable method of successful conservation though it should not be the only form.[48] HP Pavilion DV9030US Battery
Phylogenetics
The taxonomic classification of the red panda has been controversial since it was discovered. French zoologist Frédéric Cuvier initially described the red panda in 1825, and classified it as a close relative of the Raccoon (Procyonidae), even though he gave it the genus name Ailurus "cat" based on superficial similarities with domestic cats. HP Pavilion DV9033 Battery
The specific epithet is the Latin adjective fulgens "shining".[49] At various times it has been placed in Procyonidae, Ursidae, with Ailuropoda in Ailuridae, and in its own family, Ailuridae. This uncertainty comes from difficulty determining whether certain characteristics of Ailurusare phylogenetically conservative or are derived and convergent with species of similar ecological habits. HP Pavilion DV9033CL Battery
Evidence based on the fossil record, serology, karyology, behavior, anatomy, and reproduction reflect closer affinities withProcyonidae than Ursidae. However, ecological and foraging specializations and distinct geographical distribution in relation to modern Procyonids support classification in the separate family Ailuridae.[1][5][50] HP Pavilion DV9035EA Battery
Recent molecular-systematic DNA research also places the red panda into its own family Ailuridae, which is in turn part of the broad superfamily Musteloidea that also includes skunk, raccoon, and weasel families.[4][50][51]
It is not a bear, nor closely related to the giant panda, nor a raccoon, nor a lineage of uncertain affinities. HP Pavilion DV9035NR Battery
Rather it is a basal lineage of musteloid, with a long history of independence from its closest relatives (skunks, raccoons, and otters/weasels/badgers).
—Flynn et al., Whence the Red Panda,[4] p197
The name Ailurus fulgens refulgens is sometimes incorrectly used for A. f. styani. HP Pavilion DV9036 Battery
This stems from a lapsus made by Henri Milne-Edwards in his 1874 paper "Recherches pour servir à l'histoire naturelle des mammifères comprenant des considérations sur la classification de ces animaux",[52] making A. f. refulgens a nomen nudum.[6][17] The most recent edition of "Mammal Species of the World" still shows the subspecies as A. f. refulgens.[1] HP Pavilion DV9036EA Battery
This has been corrected in more recent works including "A guide to the mammals of China"[53] and "Handbook of the Mammals of the World, Volume 1: Carnivores."[3]
Evolutionary history
The red panda is considered a living fossil and only distantly related to the Giant Panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca). HP Pavilion DV9037 Battery
Their common ancestor can be traced back to the Early Tertiary Period tens of millions of years ago, with a wide distribution across Eurasia. Fossils of the red panda Parailurus anglicus have been unearthed from China in the east to Britain in the west.[54]
In 1977, a single tooth of the extinct panda Parailurus was discovered in the Pliocene Ringold Formation of Washington State. HP Pavilion DV9037EA Battery
This first North American record is almost identical to European specimens and indicates the immigration of this species from Asia.[55] In 2004, a tooth from a red panda species never before recorded in North America was discovered at the Gray Fossil Site in Tennessee. The tooth dates from 4.5–7 million years ago.[56] HP Pavilion DV9038 Battery
This species described asPristinailurus bristoli indicates that a second, more primitive ailurine lineage inhabited North America during the Miocene. Cladistic analysis suggests thatParailurus and Ailurus are sister-taxa.[54][57]
The discovery in Spain of the postcranial remains of Simocyon batalleri, HP Pavilion DV9038EA Battery
a Miocene relative to the red panda, supports a sister-group relationship between red pandas and giant pandas. The discovery suggests that the red panda's "false thumb" was an adaptation to arboreal locomotion — independent of the giant panda's adaptation to manipulate bamboo — one of the most dramatic cases of convergent evolution among vertebrates.[58] HP Pavilion DV9039 Battery
Taxonomic history
The first known written record of the red panda occurs in a 13th-century Chinese scroll depicting a hunting scene between hunters and the red panda.[30][47]
Major General Thomas Hardwicke’s 1821 presentation of an article titled "Description of a new Genus of the Class Mammalia, HP Pavilion DV9039EA Battery
from the Himalaya Chain of Hills Between Nepaul and the Snowy Mountains" at the Linnean Society in London is usually regarded as the moment the red panda became a bona fide species in Western science. Hardwicke proposed the name "Wha" and explained: "It is frequently discovered by its loud cry or call, HP Pavilion DV9040EA Battery
resembling the word ‘Wha’, often repeating the same : hence is derived one of the local names by which it is known. It is also called Chitwa." Hardwicke's paper was not published until 1827, by which time Frédéric Cuvier had published his description and a figure. Hardwicke's originally proposed taxonomic name was removed from the 1827 publication of his paper with his permission, and naming credit is now given to Cuvier.[59] HP Pavilion DV9040EU Battery
Frédéric Cuvier had received the specimen he described from his brother's stepson Alfred Duvaucel who had sent it "from the mountains north of India".[60] He was the first who used both the binomial Ailurus fulgens and the vernacular name Panda in reference to the species in his description published in 1825 in Histoire Naturelle des Mammifères. HP Pavilion DV9040TX Battery
Ailurus is adopted from the ancient Greek word αἴλουρος meaning cat.[63] Fulgensis Latin for shining, bright.[64] Panda is the French name for the Roman goddess of peace and travelers, who was called upon before starting a difficult journey.[65] HP Pavilion DV9040US Battery
Whether this is the origin of the French vernacular name Panda remains uncertain. In later publications, the name is claimed to be adopted from aHimalayan language.
Local names
The red panda's local names differ from place to place. The Lepcha people call it sak nam. In Nepal, the species is calledbhalu biralo (bear-cat) and habre. HP Pavilion DV9041 Battery
The Sherpa people of Nepal and Sikkim call it ye niglva ponva and wah donka.[66] The wordwậː is Sunuwari meaning bear; in Tamang language, a small, red bear is called tāwām.[67] In the Kanchenjunga region of eastern Nepal, the Limbus know red pandas as Kaala, which literally means dark because of their underside pelage; villagers of Tibetan origin call them Hoptongar.[68] HP Pavilion DV9041EA Battery
Additionally, Pocock lists the vernacular names Ye and Nigálya ponya (Nepal); Thokya and Thongwa (Limbu); Oakdonga orWakdonka and Woker (Bhotia); Saknam Sunam (Lepcha).[6] Nigálya may originate from the Nepali word निङालो niṅālo or nĩgālomeaning a particular kind of small bamboo, namely Arundinaria intermedia, but also refers to a kind of small leopard, or cat-bear. HP Pavilion DV9042 Battery
The word pónya may originate from the Nepali word पञ्जा pajā meaning claw, or पौँजा paũjā meaning paw of an animal.[70]Nigálya pónya may translate to 'bamboo claw' or 'bamboo paw'.
Nigálya pónya, nyala ponga, and poonya are said to mean eater of bamboo. It could be that the name panda originates from panjā.[71] HP Pavilion DV9042EA Battery
In English, the red panda is also called lesser panda, though due to the pejorative implications of this name, "red" is generally preferred.[2] Many other languages use red panda, or variations of shining/gold or lesser/small in their names for this species. HP Pavilion DV9043 Battery
For instance, червена панда in Bulgarian,panda roux in French, and panda rojo in Spanish all mean red panda. Since at least as far back as 1855, one of its French names has been panda éclatant (shining panda).[72] In Finnish, it is called kultapanda ("gold panda"). Variations of lesser panda occur in French petit panda ("small panda"), HP Pavilion DV9043EA Battery
in Spanish panda menor("lesser panda"), in Dutch kleine panda ("small panda"), in Russian «малая панда» (malaya panda, "small panda"), in Korean 애기판다 (aeki panda, "baby panda"), in Japanese ressā panda (レッサーパンダ transliteration of English "lesser panda"?).HP Pavilion DV9044 Battery
Other names attributed to this species include fire cat, bright panda and common panda.[30]
In Chinese language, the red panda is called 小熊貓 (xiǎoxióngmāo, lesser panda or small panda),[73] and 红熊猫/紅熊貓 (hóngxióngmāo, red panda).[74]
Note: The Giant Panda is called 熊猫/熊貓 (xióngmāo) OR 大熊猫/大熊貓 (dàxióngmāo), in which 大 literally means "giant" or "big" and 熊猫/熊貓 literally means "bear cat".[75] HP Pavilion DV9044EA Battery
The English name firefox is often claimed by English sources to be a literal translation of the Chinese name for the red panda.But the Chinese word 火狐 huǒhú refers to the Firefox web browser.
Cultural depictions
The red panda was recognized as the state animal of Sikkim, India in the early 1990s,[84] and was the mascot of the Darjeeling Tea Festival.[47] HP Pavilion DV9010EA Battery
In southwest China red pandas are hunted for their fur, especially for the highly valued bushy tails from which hats are produced. In these areas the fur is often used for local cultural ceremonies. In weddings the bridegroom traditionally carries the hide. The "good-luck charm" red panda-tail hats are also used by local newlyweds. HP Pavilion DV9010TX Battery
This practice may be quite old, as the red panda seems to be depicted in a 13th century Chinese pen and ink scroll showing a hunting scene. There is little or no mention of the red panda in the culture and folklore of Nepal.[47]
The Firefox browser is said to have been named after a Chinese name for red panda: 火狐, or "fire fox." HP Pavilion DV9010US Battery
However, Mozilla's documents don't mention the red panda among their motivations:
It's similar to Firebird. It's easy to remember. It sounds good. It's unique. We like it. And we weren't able to find any other project or company even remotely similar to a web browser that uses the same name. HP Pavilion DV9011EA Battery
In addition, an article on its branding by the artist says that although a firefox is a red panda, the logo design is a red fox.[86] Despite these statements, Mozilla says that Firefox is another name for Red Panda (citing a mirror of the Wikipedia red panda article as its source[87]), and in 2010 the Firefox Web site started linking to a "live feed of firefox cubs"[88] (red pandas[89]). HP Pavilion DV9011XX Battery
An anthropomorphic red panda was featured as Master Shifu, the Kung Fu teacher, in the 2008 film Kung Fu Panda and its 2011 sequel Kung Fu Panda 2. Some of the comments about this film indicate the lack of awareness about the red panda in the United States when the first film was released. HP Pavilion DV9012EA Battery
Although most of the reviewers got the species correct, some nevertheless mistook it for a tiny wolf,[90] a rodent,[91] and a lemur.[92] In an interview, Dustin Hoffman also indicated that he did not know much about the animal when he first agreed to voice the character. HP Pavilion DV9012TX Battery
In 2005, Babu, a male red panda at Birmingham Nature Centre in Birmingham, England, escaped and briefly became a media celebrity, before being recaptured. He was subsequently voted "Brummie of the Year", the first animal to receive this honor. HP Pavilion DV9013CA Battery,HP Pavilion DV9013CL Battery,HP Pavilion DV9014EA Battery
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