Saturday, March 30, 2013

Although initially he rejoined his old law partnership

Although initially he rejoined his old law partnership, he established his own offices in 1893, the year his son Joseph Jr. became an assistant in his office upon graduation from Cornell.[64] Joseph Benson Foraker Jr. was the first child of a Cornell alumnus to graduate from the university.[65] Sony VAIO VGN-BZAAPS Battery The senior Foraker, though he accepted a broad array of cases, was a "political lawyer", lobbying the legislature to grant franchises to his clients, and arranging for bills unfavorable to his clients (who included the Edison Electric Company, Cincinnati Bell Telephone Company, and the Cincinnati Street Railway Company) to be quashed.[66] Sony VAIO VGN-CS118E/Q Battery The former governor was enraged when in March 1890, Hanna gave a speech in New York stating, "Foraker is dead as a factor in our politics and Ohio is again as reliable a Republican state as it ever was."[63] Foraker determined to secure election to the Senate; although the Democratic-controlled legislature had elected Calvin Brice to the Senate in 1890, Sony VAIO VGN-CS118E/R Battery Sherman's seat would be up for election in January 1892. McKinley was defeated for re-election to Congress in November 1890; his stature in Ohio politics was not diminished by the loss, as he was seen as a victim of gerrymandering. When the former congressman ran for governor the following year, he asked Foraker to place his name in nomination, Sony VAIO VGN-CS118E/W Battery which he did. Although some saw this as a rapprochement between the Sherman and Foraker factions, the former governor's supporters, such as Kurtz and millionaire Springfield manufacturer Asa Bushnell, were already campaigning for Foraker for Senate.[67][68][69] McKinley was elected governor in November 1891, and the Republicans took a two-thirds majority in the legislature. Sony VAIO VGN-CS11S/P Battery During the campaign, supporters of both Foraker and Sherman had sought pledges from candidates, and in the aftermath of the legislative elections, both men expressed confidence.[70] Sherman was handicapped by his age (68), unpopularity, and a cold personality; according to Horner, "Sony VAIO VGN-CS11S/Q Battery Foraker was simply more of a man of the people than Sherman could ever hope to be."[71] Sherman's aide, Jacob C. Donaldson, later wrote, "the situation was bad, almost desperate".[71] Hanna had made significant campaign contributions to legislative candidates, and was outraged when legislators believed to favor Sherman instead announced that they would vote for Foraker; Sony VAIO VGN-CS11S/W Battery according to his biographer, Herbert Croly, "The situation looked desperate; but it was saved, so Mr. Sherman himself stated to his friends, by Mr. Hanna's energy, enthusiasm and ability to bend other men to his will. Three of the Cleveland representatives, who had gone into hiding, were unearthed and forced into line."[72] Sony VAIO VGN-CS11Z/R Battery Donaldson noted, "Several of them were ruined by their perfidy."[73] Foraker was defeated narrowly in the Republican caucus, first on a vote to hold a secret ballot (which would have benefited him), and then on the endorsement vote, which supported Sherman, who was subsequently elected by the legislature.[74] Sony VAIO VGN-CS120J/P Battery According to Horner, "It is difficult to know which mattered more to Hanna—making sure his old friend Sherman kept his job or making sure that Foraker did not get it."[75] Sherman was not magnanimous in victory, telling friends that he would not rest until he "tomahawked the last of Foraker's crowd".[76] Nevertheless, at the Republican state convention, Sony VAIO VGN-CS120J/Q Battery Foraker and his supporters were able to gain their goal of half the delegates-at-large to the 1892 Republican National Convention in Minneapolis, free to vote as they pleased.[77]. President Harrison was seeking renomination; other men spoken of as possible candidates were Blaine (who had again disclaimed any interest in running) and McKinley. Sony VAIO VGN-CS120J/R Battery Prior to the Minneapolis convention, Hanna wrote to Foraker for the first time in four years, seeking to put aside differences in support of McKinley.[78] Foraker agreed; he disliked Harrison and did not feel he could be re-elected. McKinley finished third for the nomination, a fraction of a vote behind Blaine. Sony VAIO VGN-CS190JTB Battery Harrison was defeated by Cleveland in the November election, and McKinley was spoken of as the most likely Republican presidential contender for 1896. Foraker had little involvement in politics in 1893 and 1894, concentrating on the law. He still sought a Senate seat, Sony VAIO VGN-CS190JTP Battery however, and carefully planned his strategy for the 1895 state convention in Zanesville. Foraker forces gained full control, nominating Bushnell for governor to succeed McKinley, and Foraker allies for other state offices. The convention also endorsed Foraker for Senate, Sony VAIO VGN-CS190JTQ Battery the first time a specific individual had been backed for Senate by an Ohio Republican convention. According to Walters, "The Zanesville convention represented the highest pinnicle of Foraker's power in Ohio politics. He had selected the platform, chosen the next governor and the complete ticket, and had secured for himself virtual election to the United States Senate."[80] Sony VAIO VGN-CS190JTR Battery Foraker took a leading role as a speaker in the campaign, and the November election resulted in victory for Bushnell and a Republican majority in the legislature.[81] That majority, on January 15, 1896, elected Joseph Foraker to the Senate.[82] Even before the senatorial election, the rival factions in the Ohio Republican Party were battling less than usual, Sony VAIO VGN-CS190JTW Battery but it was not until the day of the senatorial election that McKinley and Foraker reached a definite understanding for peace during the 1896 campaign. Foraker agreed to support McKinley's presidential bid, and to travel to New York to approach that state's Republican political boss, Sony VAIO VGN-CS190NAB Battery Senator Thomas Platt, hoping to gain Platt's support for McKinley.[83] In March, Foraker addressed the state convention in support of McKinley in a widely publicized speech. However, he was reluctant to be a delegate to the national convention, fearing that he would be blamed if anything went wrong with McKinley's candidacy. Sony VAIO VGN-CS190NAC Battery It was only after considerable prodding from the presidential candidate that Foraker agreed to be a delegate, and to place McKinley's name in nomination. McKinley desired that Foraker nominate him to show that he had the united support of the state Republican Party.[c][84] Sony VAIO VGN-CS190NAD Battery Senator-elect Foraker eventually agreed, and gave the nominating speech, part of which was heard by McKinley via telephone line to Canton.[85] The Democrats nominated former Nebraska congressman William Jennings Bryan, who had electrified the Democratic National Convention with his Cross of Gold speech.[86] Sony VAIO VGN-CS190NBB Battery When Bryan accepted his nomination with a lengthy address in New York, the senator-elect commented, "Mr. Bryan made himself by one speech, and now he has unmade himself by one speech". Although Foraker went to Europe for four weeks (his sole trip abroad), he gave almost 200 speeches for the Republicans once he returned.[87] Sony VAIO VGN-CS190NCA Battery McKinley was elected president with a comfortable majority in the Electoral College. On March 4, 1897, the same day William McKinley became president, Joseph Foraker was sworn in as senator from Ohio. The new legislator was escorted to the bar of the Senate by Sherman; his swearing-in helped cement a modest Republican majority. Sony VAIO VGN-CS190NCB Battery Foraker continued his private legal work, which was not unusual at the time as many senators maintained business interests. Wealthy through his law practice, Foraker did not stand out in that regard either, as the "rich man's club" of the Senate of that era contained about 25 millionaires. Sony VAIO VGN-CS190NCC Battery During the 1896 campaign, Hanna served as chairman of the Republican National Committee, in charge of McKinley's campaign, and obtained millions for his presidential candidate by soliciting donations from wealthy businessmen.[90] After the November election, Sony VAIO VGN-CS50B/W Battery Foraker met with Hanna and was surprised to learn that President-elect McKinley and Hanna planned that Sherman would be appointed Secretary of State and that the industrialist would take Sherman's place in the Senate. Foraker objected to both components of this plan, feeling that Hanna was not qualified as a legislator, and that Sherman, Sony VAIO VGN-CS51B/W Battery whose faculties were starting to fail, should not become Secretary of State. Foraker met with McKinley, but failed to convince him.[91] Bushnell (who would get to appoint a temporary replacement) and Foraker (a close political ally of the governor) did not want to appoint Hanna; Sony VAIO VGN-CS52JB/W Battery their faction had several candidates, including Bushnell himself, for the next election for Sherman's seat in 1898. Bushnell and Foraker resisted for a month once the pending appointment of Sherman became known in January 1897, during which time the governor offered the seat to Congressman Theodore E. Burton, Sony VAIO VGN-CS60B/P Battery who declined. It was not until February 21 that Bushnell finally announced Hanna's appointment, effective upon Sherman's resignation.[91]This controversy to some extent overshadowed Foraker's swearing-in as senator on March 4—Hanna adherents claimed that Bushnell had delayed the effective date of the industrialist's appointment until Foraker took his seat so that Hanna would be the junior senator. Sony VAIO VGN-CS60B/Q Battery In his memoirs, Foraker denied this, noting that Sherman was unwilling to resign until the afternoon of March 4, after the new president and Congress were sworn in and the new Cabinet, including Sherman, was confirmed by the Senate. Hanna was given his commission as senator by Bushnell on the morning of March 5.[92][93] Sony VAIO VGN-CS60B/R Battery Foraker had known that with McKinley in the Executive Mansion (as the White House was still formally known) and Sherman expected to be senior senator, he could expect only limited patronage appointments for his supporters.[87] With McKinley's close friend Hanna instead in the Senate, Sony VAIO VGN-CS61B/P Battery Foraker was allowed to recommend appointees to the President, but McKinley allowed Hanna to exercise a veto over Foraker's candidates.[94] Foraker was not visibly involved in the unsuccessful efforts to deny Hanna re-election in 1898, but several of his allies, including Bushnell and Kurtz, were part of the opposition.[95Sony VAIO VGN-CS61B/Q Battery ] Foraker nominated McKinley again atthe 1900 convention; his florid praise of the president pleased the delegates. As McKinley's original vice president, Garret Hobart, had died in 1899, he required a new running mate for the 1900 campaign, and the convention chose the popular Spanish-American War hero, Sony VAIO VGN-CS61B/R Battery New York Governor Theodore Roosevelt. Foraker had maintained friendly relations with Roosevelt since the two men met at the 1884 convention, but Hanna bitterly opposed the choice.[96][97] Foraker spoke widely during McKinley's successful re-election campaign.[98] Sony VAIO VGN-CS62JB/P Battery After President McKinley was assassinated in September 1901, Foraker attended the funeral services and addressed a large memorial meeting at the Cincinnati Music Hall. When politics resumed after the mourning, Foraker spoke in defense of President Roosevelt's inviting Booker T. Washington, an African American, to the White House. Sony VAIO VGN-CS62JB/Q Battery This helped ensure support from the black community in Foraker's successful re-election bid in January 1902, which was not opposed by the Hanna faction.[98] Both Hanna and Foraker had been spoken of as possible Republican presidential candidates in 1904; with President Roosevelt now likely to be the nominee, both men's presidential ambitions were pushed back four years.[99] Sony VAIO VGN-CS62JB/R Battery Hanna in particular was reluctant to publicly put aside his presidential candidacy, believing that keeping it alive would help assure his re-election by the legislature in 1904.[100] In 1903, Foraker saw an opportunity to embarrass Hanna and boost his own chances for 1908 by getting the Republican state convention to pass a resolution endorsing Roosevelt for re-election. Sony VAIO VGN-CS71B/W Battery If Hanna supported the resolution, he made it clear he would not be a candidate; if he opposed it, he risked Roosevelt's wrath. Hanna sent Roosevelt a telegram that he would oppose the resolution; Roosevelt replied that he expected his administration's supporters to vote for such a resolution, and Hanna gave in.[101] Sony VAIO VGN-CS72JB/W Battery In February 1904, Hanna died of typhoid fever, and his Senate seat and factional leadership were won by Charles Dick, a four-term congressman who had received favorable publicity due to his Spanish-American War service. Dick was able to work out an accommodation with Foraker's faction and was thereafter considered the leader of Ohio's Republican "stand-patters", who saw no immediate need for social change. Sony VAIO VGN-CS90HS Battery In the year between his swearing-in and the 1898 Spanish-American War, Foraker was an enthusiastic supporter of Cuban independence from Spain. A special session of Congress, called at the request of President McKinley, met beginning in March 1897 to consider new tariff legislation; Sony VAIO VGN-CS90NS Battery hawkish senators, including Foraker (who was made a member of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee), took the opportunity to press resolutions in support of the Cuban insurgents.[103] Foraker was impatient with McKinley's policy towards Spain, decrying the President'sState of the Union communication to Congress in December 1897 and his so-called Sony VAIO VGN-CS90S Battery "war message", which some deemed insufficiently bellicose, in April 1898. The senator stated to a reporter of the latter, "I have no patience with the message and you may say so. I have heard nothing but condemnation of the message on all hands."[104] Foraker had introduced a resolution calling for Spain to withdraw from Cuba, Sony VAIO VGN-CS91HS Battery and for the recognition of the rebels as the legitimate government of an independent Cuba. The resolution that passed Congress in April called for all those things except recognition (deleted at the request of the administration) and authorized the President to use force to achieve those aims. Sony VAIO VGN-CS91NS Battery McKinley's signature on the joint resolution caused Spain to break off diplomatic relations and war was quickly declared. Foraker followed the war closely—his elder son was fighting in it—and was an early proponent of the US keeping Spanish colonies it had captured, such as the Philippines and Puerto Rico.[105][106] Sony VAIO VGN-CS91S Battery McKinley had attempted to annex Hawaii, but the annexation treaty failed to be ratified by the Senate. Congressional leaders decided to try again, this time using a joint resolution that would bypass the need for a two-thirds vote in the Senate. The American victory at the Battle of Manila Bay in early May revived interest in the Hawaiian matter. Sony VAIO VGN-CS92DS Battery Foraker was a major proponent of the resolution in the Foreign Relations Committee and was the only committee member to speak in the debate. Opposition was mostly from Democrats, who objected to the revolution by which American interests had taken control of the islands in 1893, a seizure defended by Foraker. Sony VAIO VGN-CS92JS Battery In early July, proponents were able to get the resolution through both houses of Congress, and President McKinley signed it on July 8.[107] The new American possession of Puerto Rico found itself in financial woes soon after its acquisition—its principal export, coffee, was now barred by high tariffs from both Spanish and American markets. Sony VAIO VGN-CS92XS Battery Foraker took the lead in drafting and pressing legislation establishing a civil government for the island. Although Foraker had proposed to eliminate tariffs on imports from Puerto Rico, to secure passage of the legislation he had to accept a rate of 15% for two years as the island developed a taxation system, after which there would be no tariff, Sony VAIO PCG-3B1M Battery and the money would be used to develop the island.[108] The Foraker Act was signed by President McKinley on April 12, 1900. It required an American-appointed governor and a legislature in which a majority of the upper house would be American-appointed, and did not grant Puerto Ricans American citizenship.[109] Sony VAIO PCG-3C1T Battery Foraker had wanted to give the islanders US citizenship, but neither the administration nor much of the Congress agreed with him.[110] In 1901, the Foraker Act was upheld by the Supreme Court, which ruled in Downes v. Bidwell that the Constitution did not apply to Puerto Rico and that Congress could legislate for it (or, in the phrase then current, the Constitution did not follow the flag). Sony VAIO PCG-3D1M Battery Foraker maintained generally friendly relations with Roosevelt in the president's first term: lacking an electoral mandate, Roosevelt had pledged after the assassination to carry out McKinley's policies. Elected in his own right in November 1904, President Roosevelt felt more free to support progressive policies. Sony VAIO PCG-3G2M Battery When Roosevelt told Foraker his plans after the election, Foraker initially took no alarm, but according to Walters, "the resulting antagonism led to the political elimination of Foraker in 1908."[112] Their relationship began to break down over the question of railroad regulation. Sony VAIO PCG-5R1M Battery The President in 1905 sought legislation to give the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) the power to set freight rates; Foraker considered the proposed law unconstitutional, and introduced a bill by which the railroad would set the rates, and if the ICC found they were excessive, it could ask the Attorney General to bring suit. Sony VAIO PCG-7141M Battery Foraker spoke repeatedly against the administration-favored bill as it moved through the Senate, and was one of only three senators (and the only Republican) to oppose the resulting Hepburn Act on final Senate passage. As the Ohio legislature had passed a resolution urging Foraker and Dick to vote for the bill, Sony VAIO PCG-7143M Battery he faced anger at home; one newspaper wrote that Foraker had extinguished his chances of becoming president with his vote. The following year, Foraker also broke with the administration on the question of statehood for Arizona Territory and New Mexico Territory, Sony VAIO PCG-7151M Battery feeling that the two territories should not be combined into one state unless a merger was approved in referenda. Foraker's position prevailed in Congress; despite his stance, Roosevelt signed the resulting bill. The two men also differed on issues of patronage, Sony VAIO PCG-7154M Battery and on a series of treaties requiring Senate ratification that allowed for international agreements without the need for Senate approval. Roosevelt wrote to a friend that Foraker seemed determine to fight him on every point, good or bad. On the night of August 14, 1906, gunshots were heard in the border town of Brownsville, Sony VAIO PCG-7162M Battery Texas; one resident was killed and a police officer wounded. Various military items, including discharged rifle shells, were presented by the local mayor as evidence that troops of the 25th Infantry Battalion, stationed outside of town and consisting of African Americans, were responsible. When questioned, all denied involvement. Sony VAIO PCG-7181M Battery Nevertheless, their white officers reported to the War Department that undetermined men belonging to the 25th Infantry were responsible, and that others of the battalion were aware of who had done it, but were remaining silent. Despite an almost total lack of evidence, on November 5, Sony VAIO PCG-41112M Battery 1906 (just after the midterm congressional elections), Roosevelt ordered 167 soldiers dishonorably discharged and made ineligible for federal employment, including such decorated soldiers as First Sergeant Mingo Sanders, who had fought alongside Roosevelt in Cuba. Sony VAIO PCG-7153M Battery The President adhered to his decision despite appeals from both whites and African Americans.[114][115] Foraker was initially convinced of the guilt of the men, but reconsidered after evidence obtained in a private investigation by progressive organizations was presented to him (the attorney presenting it, an African American, Sony VAIO PCG-71312M Battery was denied an audience with Roosevelt).[116][117] According to Roosevelt biographer Edmund Morris, "Foraker had a passion for racial justice."[118] Recalling Foraker's desire, as a soldier, to see slavery abolished and the African American given the same civil and political rights as the white man, Sony VAIO PCG-7144M Battery Morris explains, "Senator Foraker merely felt the same about the Constitution in 1906 as Private Foraker had felt in 1862."[118]Despite his desire to see justice done, Foraker also saw political advantage in opposing Roosevelt over the Brownsville issue; he might boost his own presidential ambitions for 1908 by making both Roosevelt and his designated heir apparent, Secretary of War William Howard Taft, look bad. Sony VAIO PCG-7191L Battery Foraker battled to have the Senate investigate the Brownsville case, and got the body to pass a resolution requiring Taft to turn over information. By late January 1907, after further investigation, Roosevelt had rescinded the part of the order barring the soldiers from federal employment, Sony VAIO PCG-3C1M Battery and had stated that he would reconsider the case of anyone who could present proof of his innocence. Foraker had claimed that the president lacked the authority to discharge the men; to get a resolution passed for an investigatory committee, he had to withdraw that assertion.[120] Sony VAIO PCG-3F1M Battery Matters came to a head at the Gridiron Dinner[d] on January 27; the program showed cartoons of the leading attendees and accompanying verses. Foraker's read "All coons look alike to me", suggesting his Brownsville stance was to attract the African-American vote. According to Walters, Sony VAIO PCG-3H1M Battery "the jests had been pointed and the cartoons biting;" Roosevelt was seen to be angry.[121][122] Nevertheless, when the President rose to speak, all that was expected was a few minutes of humorous comments.[123] Instead, in his speech, Roosevelt attacked Foraker and defended his own conduct in the Brownsville case. Sony VAIO PCG-3J1M Battery Although it was not customary to permit anyone to follow a president's speech, Foraker was allowed to reply. The Washington Post reported that Foraker "gave the President the plainest talk he has probably ever listened to." Foraker stated that Sergeant Sanders had been dishonorably discharged even though Sony VAIO PCG-8141M Battery "he was as innocent of any offense against the law of any kind whatever as the President himself"—and, he charged, Roosevelt was fully aware the soldiers had been wronged.[126] He denied that he was after votes with his position, "I was seeking to provide for those men an opportunity to be heard in their own defense, Sony VAIO PCG-8161M Battery to give them a chance to confront their accusers and cross-examine their witnesses, and establish the real facts in the case."[127] Roosevelt spoke in angry rebuttal, but according to his biographer Morris, "Never before, at the Gridiron or anywhere else, had a President been challenged before an audience." Sony VAIO PCG-3C2M Battery In the aftermath of the Gridiron Dinner, Foraker was increasingly ostracized, both politically and socially.[129] Unwelcome at the White House, he was excluded from patronage. Nevertheless, the Committee on Military Affairs, on which Foraker sat, went ahead and held hearings into the Brownsville matter between February and June 1907.[130] Sony VAIO PCG-5N2M Battery Author John Weaver, in his 1997 book on the Brownsville case, takes note of "Foraker's masterful presentation of fact and law", including his cross-examination of witnesses who sought to convince the committee of the soldiers' guilt.[131] In March 1908, the committee issued its report, by a vote of 9–4 endorsing the President's action. Sony VAIO PCG-5P1M Battery While the official minority report found the evidence inconclusive, Foraker and Connecticut Senator Morgan G. Bulkeley signed a separate report stating that "the weight of the testimony shows that none of the soldiers of the Twenty-fifth U.S. Infantry participated in the shooting affray".[132] Sony VAIO PCG-5S1M Battery Although he knew he had little chance of winning, Foraker challenged Taft, his fellow Cincinnatian, for the Republican nomination for president. He hoped to secure a deal whereby he would endorse Taft in exchange for support in the senatorial election to be held in January 1909.[e] Sony VAIO PCG-9Z1M Battery Roosevelt was determined to drive Foraker from politics, and Taft refused to deal. Taft won at each stage of the delegate-selection process, gaining all but two delegates from Ohio. At the 1908 Republican National Convention, Taft received 702 votes and was nominated; Foraker received 16, of which 11 came from African Americans.[133] Sony VAIO PCG-7171M Battery After Foraker's defeat for the presidential nomination, he began work to gain re-election to the Senate. His vote on the Hepburn Act and his opposition to Roosevelt had provoked opposition to him within the Ohio Republican Party; in addition, both he and Dick were seen by some as the face of the old guard of the party, out of place in the Progressive Era. Sony VAIO PCG-7186M Battery Many of those who opposed him proposed Congressman Theodore E. Burton for the Senate seat; Foraker stated that the first thing to do was secure a Republican legislature, with the question of who should be senator left until victory was obtained. Amid speculation as to Taft's position on Foraker, the two men met, to all appearances cordially, Sony VAIO PCG-81112M Battery on September 2 at the Grand Army of the Republicencampment at Toledo, and later that day, the two men appeared on the same platform. Taft spoke in appreciation of Foraker, who, as governor, had appointed him as a judge, giving him his start in public life. Foraker, for his part, Sony VAIO PCG-31311M Battery stated that Taft would be his party leader during the campaign, and called on the presidential candidate at his headquarters in Cincinnati a week later. The Taft campaign asked Foraker to preside, and to introduce Taft, at a rally to be held at the Cincinnati Music Hall on September 22.[134] In a letter to a newspaper publisher, Taft pointed out that Foraker "can be useful with the colored vote and the Grand Army vote".[135] Sony VAIO PCG-8152M Battery The seeming rapprochement was shattered when publisher William Randolph Hearst, giving a speech in Columbus, read from letters to Foraker by Standard Oil Company vice president John D. Archbold. During Foraker's first term in the Senate, he had done legal work for Standard Oil; Sony VAIO PCG-31111M Battery in the letters, Archbold made reference to legislation he considered objectionable, and also made references to substantial fees to Foraker. However, the publisher read them in such a way as to suggest a causal relationship between the killing of the legislation and the fees. Foraker quickly denied any impropriety, Sony VAIO PCG-61111M Battery stating that the relationship was not secret and the excerpts had been read out of context.[136] Foraker noted that when he was retained by the corporation in December 1898, it had not yet come under federal scrutiny, and when Archbold had sought to retain him in 1906, he had declined. Sony VAIO PCG-51112M Battery Standard Oil was wildly unpopular, and the controversy put Taft in a difficult position. Foraker sent a letter to Taft, hand-delivered by Senator Dick, expressing his willingness to avoid the Music Hall meeting. Taft said only that he hoped Foraker would meet with the organizers of the event and follow their recommendation, Sony VAIO PCG-51211M Battery which Foraker took to mean that Taft was giving credence to Hearst's charges and did not want him there. Foraker cancelled all remaining campaign speeches.[137] Ohio helped elect Taft and elected a Democratic governor, but returned a Republican legislature, which would elect a senator in January 1909.[138] Sony VAIO PCG-51212M Battery Through December, Foraker worked to try to retain his Senate seat. His rivals were Burton and the President-elect's brother, former congressman Charles Phelps Taft, though near the end of the contest, former lieutenant governor Warren G. Harding asked for his name to be considered. Sony VAIO PCG-41111M Battery Both Foraker and Burton opposed Charles Taft's call for a caucus of the Republican legislators to determine the party's candidate.[139] On December 29, President Roosevelt weighed in on the question. Roosevelt "lost no time in putting the Republican members of the Ohio legislature on notice that to re-elect Sony VAIO PCG-41111V Battery Mr. Foraker to the Senate would be regarded as nothing less than treason to the party".[140] Roosevelt accused Foraker of seeking to make a bargain with the Democrats to secure his re-election in exchange for a Democratic replacement for Dick in 1911. Faced with this presidential intervention and Charles Taft's withdrawal from the race, Sony VAIO PCG-61412V Battery Foraker saw no path to victory and conceded on December 31. Burton was endorsed by the Republican caucus two days later and was elected by the legislature on January 12.[141] Foraker continued to work on Brownsville in his remaining time in office, guiding a resolution through Congress to establish a board of inquiry with the power to reinstate the soldiers. Sony VAIO PCG-71112M Battery The bill, which was not opposed by the administration, was less than Foraker wanted; he had hoped for a requirement that unless specific evidence was shown against a man, he would be allowed to re-enlist. The legislation passed both houses[142] and was signed by Roosevelt on March 2, 1909.[f][143] Sony VAIO PCG-81111V Battery On March 6, 1909, shortly after he left the Senate, Joseph Foraker was the guest of honor at a mass meeting at Washington's Metropolitan African Methodist Episcopal Church. Though both whites and African Americans assembled to recognize the former senator, all the speakers were African Americans, save Foraker. Sony VAIO PCG-81111V Battery Presented with a silver loving cup, he addressed the crowd, I have said that I do not believe that a man in that battalion had anything to do with the shooting up of "Brownsville", but whether any one of them had, it was our duty to ourselves as a great, strong, and powerful nation to give every man a hearing, to deal fairly and squarely with every man; Sony VAIO PCG-81212M Battery to see to it that justice was done to him; that he should be heard. As with his defeat for governor twenty years earlier, Foraker returned after losing re-election to Cincinnati and the full-time practice of law. He found a number of well-paying corporations willing to retain him as counsel; Sony VAIO PCG-81212V Battery he represented the American Multigraph Company before the Supreme Court, seeking to overturn a Taft-backed law imposing an excise tax on corporations. Several cases were consolidated into Flint v. Stone Tracy Co.(1911) in which the Supreme Court upheld the law.[145][146] Sony VAIO PCG-51111M Battery Although he expressed bitterness upon leaving office, wishing he had never left the farm in Highland County, he soon resumed his involvement in politics, speaking for the unsuccessful Republican candidate for governor, Harding, in 1910. The gubernatorial candidate had long been a Foraker supporter, though he had backed Taft in 1908. Sony VAIO VPCS13X9E/B battery In 1912, Foraker made speeches in support of Taft's re-election bid, although he felt he had been badly treated by Taft in 1908. He refused, however, to attack the third-party candidate, former president Roosevelt, whose candidacy split the party and led to the election of Democrat Woodrow Wilson.[147][148] Sony VAIO VPCS12V9E/B battery In 1913, ratification of the Seventeenth Amendment to the United States Constitution changed the method of choosing senators from legislative vote to election by the people.[149] Buoyed by positive reviews of his participation in the 1912 campaign, and wishing to avenge his defeat for re-election, Sony VAIO VPCS12V9E/B battery Foraker entered the 1914 Republican primary against Senator Burton and former congressman Ralph D. Cole. Burton's withdrawal transformed Foraker into the favorite. A number of Foraker enemies, and those who believed that his "old guard" Republicanism was out of date, called on Harding to enter the primary. Sony VAIO VPCF13M8E/B battery Harding was reluctant, but was eventually persuaded. Although Harding did not attack Foraker, his supporters, including Cleveland publisher Dan R. Hanna (son of the late senator), had no such scruples. Harding was victorious in the primary with 88,540 votes to 76,817 for Foraker and 52,237 for Cole, and subsequently won the general election. Sony VAIO VPCF13Z0E/B battery Harding sent Foraker a letter regretting the primary result, but Foraker was more bitter towards the electorate, feeling they had taken his long public service and returned ingratitude.[150] With his political career at an end, Foraker began work on his memoirs, Notes of a Busy Life, published in 1916. Sony VAIO VPCM13M1E/L battery The issuance of the autobiography led to a letter from Roosevelt, stating that after reading Foraker's memoirs, he regretted his attacks. Roosevelt concluded the letter with an invitation to visit him at his homein New York. Foraker treasured this letter, which he felt re-established his friendship with Roosevelt,[151]although the two men did not meet in the short time remaining to Foraker.[152] Sony VAIO VPCM13M1E/W battery Foraker supported President Wilson as he moved the nation closer to intervention in World War I. In April 1917, Foraker was one of a group of Cincinnatians who organized to support Wilson when the President asked Congress to declare war on Germany. The former senator's ill-health (he had suffered several heart attacks during the preceding winter) Sony VAIO VPCF22M1E battery limited his participation, and on May 7, he was stricken with another attack in downtown Cincinnati. Taken home, he lapsed in and out of consciousness for three days before dying on May 10, 1917. Hundreds of prominent Cincinnatians attended his interment at Spring Grove Cemetery on May 13. Sony VAIO VPCF11M1E/H battery Historian Allen Nevins, in his foreword to Walters' biography of Foraker, suggested that Foraker did not attain the presidency, as he had hoped, because of the ambitions of other Ohio politicians. While Foraker might have secured the nomination in 1888 as a compromise candidate, Sony VAIO VPCF13M0E/B battery had not his pledges to Sherman prevented it, having "stood aside for an older man[,] year after year he was compelled to stand aside for younger leaders. First McKinley, with Hanna at his side, was given precedence; then Taft, whom Foraker had given a start in public life, scaled the peak. Foraker, for all his administrative capacity, Sony VAIO VPCYB2M1E battery his wide popular appeal, and his unflinching courage, had the tragic lot of seeing a succession of associates go above him."[154] Even Foraker's final defeat, in 1914, proved to be part of the political rise of another president from Ohio, Harding.[155]Nevins noted the aggressive nature of Foraker's political style, and commented, Sony VAIO VPCYB3V1E battery "How much of his failure to reach high office was attributable to ill fortune and how much to some of his traits, readers … may judge for themselves."[154] Cincinnati editor Murat Halstead, a contemporary, attributed the fact that Foraker did not get nominated in 1888 to the surplus of ambitious Ohio men at the convention: in addition to Sherman, Sony VAIO VPCY11M1E battery Foraker, and McKinley, even Harrison had been born in Ohio.[156] According to Nevins, "in the era which began after McKinley's assassination he did not show the progressive qualities which the electorate increasingly demanded; indeed, he seemed positively reactionary."[157] Sony VAIO VPCS12L9E/B battery Walters agreed, noting that Foraker's 1914 defeat was caused in part by fears that his "uncompromising Republicanism of an earlier era would injure the party. The stirring principles of the New Freedom called for new leaders."[158]Historian Benjamin Kendrick noted that "Mr. Foraker was among the first of prominent politicians to be retired because of their too close connection with 'Big Business.'"[159] Sony VAIO VPCF11S1E/B battery Historian Louis L. Gould, who wrote a study of the McKinley administration, stated that Foraker "may well have been too close to some large corporations, but he also retained some vestiges of the commitment of the Civil War generation in the North to the idea of human equality ... This prompted him to champion the cause of the Negro soldiers."[160] Sony VAIO VPCYB3V1E/R Battery According to historian Percy Murray in his journal article on the relationship between Foraker and black newspaper editor Harry Smith, Foraker's "political career ended partially because of his support for and espousal of black rights ... Perhaps Smith best summed up his alliance with Foraker when he stated that it was time for Afro-Americans to . Sony VAIO VPCF23P1E Battery .. show full support for Foraker and men like him who supported the efforts of Afro-Americans."[161] Walter Rucker and James Upton, in their Encyclopedia of American Race Riots, write favorably of Foraker: Senator Foraker is acknowledged as the key person in Congress to keep the issue of the Brownsville soldiers alive. Sony VAIO VPCF23N1E Battery He made speeches about it and wrote about it. His statement in defense of the soldiers was summed up appropriately when he said that the soldiers "ask[ed] no favors because they are Negroes, but only justice because they are men".Sony VAIO VPCY21S1E/L Battery,Sony VAIO VPCY21S1E/G battery,Sony VAIO VPCF24M1E battery

Joseph Benson Foraker

http://www.all-keyboard.com/,http://www.keyboards-shop.com/,http://www.laptop-fan-shop.com/,http://www.laptopkeyboard-shop.com/ Joseph Benson Foraker (July 5, 1846 – May 10, 1917) was the 37thGovernor of Ohio from 1886 to 1890 and a Republican United States Senator from 1897 until 1909. Born in rural Ohio in 1846, Foraker enlisted at age 16 in the Union Armyduring the American Civil War. He fought for almost three years, attaining the rank of captain. Sony VAIO VGN-NS10E/S Battery After the war, he was a member of Cornell University's first graduating class, and became a lawyer. Interesting himself in politics, he was elected a judge in 1879 and became well known as a political speaker. Although defeated in his first run for governor in 1883, he was elected two years later. Sony VAIO VGN-NS10J/S Battery As governor, he built an alliance with Cleveland industrialist Mark Hanna, but fell out with him in 1888. Foraker lost re-election in 1889, but was elected United States Senator by the Ohio General Assembly in 1896, after an unsuccessful bid for that office in 1892. In the Senate, he supported the Spanish-American War and the annexation of the Philippines and Puerto Rico; Sony VAIO VGN-NS10L/S Battery the Foraker Act gave Puerto Rico its first civil government under American rule. He came to differ with President Theodore Roosevelt over railroad regulation and political patronage. Their largest disagreement was over the Brownsville Affair, in which black soldiers had been accused of terrorizing a Texas town, and Roosevelt had dismissed the entire battalion. Sony VAIO VGN-NS110E/L Battery Foraker zealously opposed Roosevelt's actions as unfair, and fought for the soldiers' reinstatement. The two men's disagreement broke out into an angry confrontation at the 1907 Gridiron Dinner, after which Roosevelt helped defeat Foraker's re-election bid. Foraker died in 1917; in 1972, the Army reversed the dismissals and cleared the soldiers. Sony VAIO VGN-NS110E/S Battery Joseph Benson Foraker was born on July 5, 1846, on a farm about 1 mile (1.6 km) north of Rainsboro, Ohio, in Highland County. He was the son of Henry and Margaret (Reece) Foraker, and one of 11 children, of whom nine reached adulthood. Henry Foraker was the first in his line (said to descend from Devon in England, though with German and Scots-Irishinfluences) to spell his name that way; Sony VAIO VGN-NS110E/W Battery his father, named John, had spelled it "Fouracre", or sometimes "Foreacer". David Reece, Joseph's maternal grandfather, was of English descent and had come from Grayson County, Virginia, to become a miller and farmer. The house in which Joseph Foraker was born was a comfortable two-story residence; nevertheless, Sony VAIO VGN-NS115N/S Battery his later campaign publications often depicted it as a log cabin. When Joseph was age 2, David Reece died, and the Foraker family purchased the mill and adjacent farm. There, Joseph grew up as a typical farm boy. He received little formal education, attending the local school for three or four months each winter. Sony VAIO VGN-NS11J/S Battery Nevertheless, young Joseph acquired a taste for military history, and a gift for speaking. He also became interested in politics; at age 10, he became an adherent of the newly formed Republican Party.[6] Four years later, he supported the Republican candidate, former Illinois representative Abraham Lincoln, Sony VAIO VGN-NS130E/L Battery in the1860 presidential race, marching in processions of the Wide Awakes and other pro-Lincoln groups, and attending as many rallies as he could. Impressed enough by one speaker to follow him to a neighboring town, he learned not to make the same speech twice in two days—at least, not in venues close to each other.[7] Sony VAIO VGN-NS130E/S Battery In October 1861, Foraker left his parents' home to go to the county seat ofHillsboro where he was to live with his uncle, James Reece, auditor of Highland County, and work as a clerk in his office. He was sent to replace his older brother, Burch, by then enlisted in the Union Army as the American Civil War was raging. Sony VAIO VGN-NS130E/W Battery Foraker noted in his memoirs that while his time as auditor's clerk greatly improved his penmanship, it also brought him into contact with many county officials, teaching him how a government worked. The young clerk was impressed by his brother's letters home, and was anxious to join the army despite his youth. Soon after his 16th birthday, Sony VAIO VGN-NS140E/L Battery Joseph Foraker learned that a family friend was organizing a volunteer company, and sought to enlist. His uncle gave reluctant consent, and on July 14, 1862, Foraker was mustered in Company "A", 89th Ohio Volunteer Infantry; in late August, after training, he became second sergeant. Sony VAIO VGN-NS140E/S Battery With Confederate forces moving through Kentucky and threatening Cincinnati, the 89th was hurried into defenses set up across the Ohio River in Newport, Kentucky. The Confederates did not reach the Ohio, having been forced back well to the south, and the 89th moved to Fort Shaler, near Newport. Sony VAIO VGN-NS140E/W Battery While Foraker was at Fort Shaler, President Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation; Foraker recounted in his memoirs that he and his comrades felt that the proclamation meant that they were fighting for the end of slavery, not just to preserve the Union.[8][9] Sony VAIO VGN-NS190J/L Battery Later in September 1862, the 89th was sent to Western Virginia (today West Virginia) to reinforce Union forces there, and joined in their advance for a month. The regiment settled into winter quarters, but was called out for transport to Tennessee, where it helped relieve Fort Donelson in February 1863. Sony VAIO VGN-NS190J/S Battery Before this action, Foraker had seen little fighting, and the bloody scenes there were a shock to him; he wrote his parents, "To know how dreadful war is you must see it yourself."[10] The 89th remained at Donelson only a few days before being sent to join the Army of the Cumberland under the command of Major General William S. Rosecrans near Carthage; Sony VAIO VGN-NS190J/W Battery there, Foraker was promoted to second lieutenant. In June, Foraker led an advance guard that clashed with the Confederate rear in what developed into the Battle of Hoover's Gap, and the Union forces slowly advanced across Tennessee, reaching Chattanooga in September. From Chattanooga, Sony VAIO VGN-NS235J/L Battery Foraker and two other officers were sent home to collect new soldiers who were expected to be drafted, but the plan to draft recruits was abandoned due to political opposition. In November he returned to Chattanooga, where the 89th was now part of the Army of the Tennessee under Brigadier General William Tecumseh Sherman, in time to fight in the Battle of Missionary Ridge. Sony VAIO VGN-NS235J/P Battery In May 1864, Sherman began his Atlanta Campaign. Foraker fought in a number of fierce battles in that campaign, including Resaca, New Hope Church, andKennesaw Mountain. Atlanta, or at least what was left of it after devastating fires, fell on September 2. Foraker was detailed to the Signal Corps school that had been set up by the army at Atlanta, Sony VAIO VGN-NS235J/S Battery and spent a month there. He was then assigned to Major General Henry W. Slocum's division, and remained with that division as it participated in Sherman's March to the Sea, leaving a swath of destruction behind. In late December 1864, the army reached Savannah, and Foraker, despite a storm, was able to communicate with US Navy ships offshore to alert them to the presence of Sherman's army. Sony VAIO VGN-NS235J/W Battery After a month, the army marched north into South Carolina, determined to bring even more devastation to the state that had first seceded. Foraker was in charge of maintaining signals between the wings of the army, and was stationed on a gunboat as it moved up the Savannah River. Sony VAIO VGN-NS240E/L Battery He saw more active duty as a courier between Sherman's main army and Slocum's forces in March 1865 as they met Confederate forces in North Carolina in the Battle of Bentonville. On the day of the battle, March 19, 1865, Foraker was promoted to brevet captain, and was soon thereafter made aide de camp to General Slocum. Sony VAIO VGN-NS290J/L Battery In April, as Sherman's army moved slowly northward, word came of the surrender of Confederate General Robert E. Lee and his forces atAppomattox, Virginia, effectively ending the war. In early May, Sherman's Army of Georgia journeyed north towards Washington, passing in review on May 23 before the new president, Sony VAIO VGN-NS290J/S Battery Andrew Johnson, sworn in afterLincoln's assassination the previous month. Foraker soon thereafter returned to Ohio, and was mustered out. Foraker had been anxious to become a lawyer while a clerk for his uncle; [13] with peace restored he enrolled for a year at Salem Academy and then in 1866 Ohio Wesleyan University in Delaware, Sony VAIO VGN-NS50B/L Battery Ohio. He found the students who had not served in the army to be immature. He took the usual course, mostly of classics, with a few classes in the sciences, and registered as a clerk for a local attorney. Foraker courted Julia Bundy, daughter of Congressman Hezekiah Bundy and a student at nearby Ohio Wesleyan Female College; Sony VAIO VGN-NS50B/W Battery the two would marry in 1870. In 1868, he learned that newly founded Cornell University in Ithaca, New York, was offering entrance by examination to students willing to transfer. Along with fellow Ohio Wesleyan students Morris Lyon Buchwalterand John Andrew Rea, Sony VAIO VGN-NS51B/L Battery Foraker enrolled at Cornell; the three founded the first New York State chapter of Phi Kappa Psi fraternity, and in 1869 graduated as part of Cornell's inaugural class of eight students. Foraker, in later years, served as a trustee of Cornell, elected by his fellow alumni.[14][15] After graduating from Cornell, Foraker moved to Cincinnati, where he resumed his study of law with a local firm; Sony VAIO VGN-NS51B/P Battery he was admitted to the bar in October 1869.[16] Foraker's first job in the legal profession was as anotary public; he wrote in his memoirs how time consuming depositions were in the days beforetypewriters.[17][18] Foraker wrote that he earned $600 in his first year as a lawyer, but by the fourth year was earning $2,700; "after that it was easy".Sony VAIO VGN-NS51B/W Battery The Forakers lived in a boarding house on Elm Street in Cincinnati for two years after their wedding in 1870. They then moved to a house in the suburb of Norwood and in 1879 built a home in upscale Mount Auburn. Joseph Foraker had initially intended to concentrate on his law practice, Sony VAIO VGN-NS52JB/L Battery but in the early 1870s became a well-regarded speaker for the Republicans. In 1872, Foraker campaigned for President Ulysses Grant's successful re-election bid. In 1875, he was for the first time a delegate to the Republican state convention, supporting fellow Cincinnatian Alphonso Taft for governor. Sony VAIO VGN-NS52JB/P Battery However, Taft was defeated for the nomination by the incumbent, Rutherford Hayes, who that fall broke Ohio precedent by winning a third two-year term. The following year, Foraker attended the 1876 Republican National Conventionas a spectator, and listened spellbound as Robert Ingersoll dramatically nominated Sony VAIO VGN-NS52JB/W Battery Maine Senator James G. Blaine for president, calling him a "plumed knight". While Ingersoll's speech gained Blaine a lasting nickname, it did not procure him the nomination, which fell to Governor Hayes. Foraker supported Hayes, who was elected that fall in a close and controversial election.[20] Sony VAIO VGN-NS70B/W Battery In 1876, Foraker ran for judge of the Court of Common Pleas. Election fraud by Democratic political boss Eph Howard defeated Foraker and the rest of the Republican ticket. In 1878, he ran for state's attorney forHamilton County (where Cincinnati is located) but was defeated in another Democratic sweep. Sony VAIO VGN-NS71B/W Battery In 1879, Foraker won his first elective office, as judge of the Superior Court of Cincinnati.[21][22] He served three years of a five-year term,[23][24] resigning in 1882 due to an illness, though he recovered after several months' rest. In 1883, Ohio Governor Charles Foster, a Republican who had held the office since 1880, looked for a Republican contender to succeed him. Sony VAIO VGN-NS72JB/W Battery Foster had sought increased regulation of the liquor trade, offending many German-Americans, who were deemed likely to vote Democratic in reaction, and who were especially concentrated in Cincinnati. Few expected the Republicans to retain the governorship, and prominent candidates such as SenatorJohn Sherman and Congressman Benjamin Butterworth declined to run. Sony VAIO VGN-NS90HS Battery Foster saw Foraker as a candidate likely to do well: he was a Civil War veteran with a good record as a lawyer and a promising public speaker—and his Cincinnati residence might win back some votes. Others agreed; the local United States Attorney wrote to Senator Sherman that the Republicans should nominate "Foraker or some other unobjectionable man".[26] Sony VAIO VGN-NS92JS Battery Foster accordingly wrote to Foraker, offering him the chance at "honorable distinction and useful service."[27] Foraker came to Columbus just before the 1883 state convention, and sounded out state Republican leaders such as Sherman and Congressman William McKinley. When Foraker found them willing to support him, he allowed his name to be placed in nomination, and once it was clear that Sherman would not run, Sony VAIO VGN-NS92XS Battery the convention nominated Foraker by acclamation. The Democratic Cincinnati Enquirer summed up the Republican strategy: "They determined to sacrifice as little as possible, so they sacrificed Foraker."[28] The Democrats nominated George Hoadly, another Cincinnatian, with whom Foraker was friendly. Sony VAIO VGN-NW21EF/S Battery The major issue in the campaign was alcohol—the legislature had passed a law authorizing localities to license saloons, and had authorized two referenda to allow additional regulation. Hoadly, though ill for part of the campaign withmalaria, deftly maneuvered the politically inexperienced Foraker into stating that he would not vote for the referenda. Sony VAIO VGN-NW21JF Battery This offended "dry" Republicans, splitting the party. Foraker campaigned throughout the state, reaching nearly every county and generally speaking at least twice a day.[28] Nevertheless, he was defeated by over 12,000 votes, losing most counties, including Hamilton; according to Walters, "although defeated in this campaign, Sony VAIO VGN-NW21MF Battery Foraker gained by it; he won political repute through the state; no longer was he an 'unknown.'"[29]One reason cited for Foraker's defeat was a failure to appeal to African Americans, who constituted about two percent of Ohio's population and who then mostly voted Republican.[30] Sony VAIO VGN-NW21MF/W Battery Foraker returned to the practice of law, initially vowing to avoid politics; however, he received a number of letters offering him support in a gubernatorial race in 1885. The 1884 Republican state convention elected Foraker a delegate-at-large to the national convention along with Congressman McKinley and Cleveland industrialist Mark Hanna. Sony VAIO VGN-NW21ZF Battery Sherman's political managers asked Foraker to play an active role in Sherman's presidential campaign, and to place his name in nomination at the convention, which he did, though Walters describes his speech as "weak and unimpressive" by comparison with Foraker's later efforts. Sony VAIO VGN-NW31EF/W Battery Other candidates for the presidential nomination included President Chester A. Arthur (who had succeeded the assassinated James Garfield) and John A. Logan, but the convention was dominated by the Blaine forces. Sherman received 30 votes, mostly from Ohio, on the first ballot, Sony VAIO VGN-NW31JF Battery but his total thereafter declined, and Blaine secured the nomination on the fourth ballot. There was talk of Foraker for vice president; he received one vote, from New York delegate and Cornell president Andrew D. White. The nominating speech, despite its flaws, made Foraker a national figure. Sony VAIO VGN-NW320F/B Battery At the convention, Foraker worked with Hanna and with Charles G. Kurtz of Columbus: both would support Foraker in the years ahead, though in the case of Hanna, only for a time.[31] In the fall campaign, both Foraker and Hanna supported Blaine, accompanying the New Englander when he toured Ohio in October. Sony VAIO VGN-NW320F/TC Battery However, Blaine was defeated by the Democratic candidate, New York Governor Grover Cleveland.[32] Foraker received early support for a second run for governor in 1885, but said little publicly until the state convention in Springfield in June. Sony VAIO VGN-NW35E Battery He did, however, respond to allegations that he had discriminated against African Americans in his law practice and that he had withdrawn from Ohio Wesleyan because a black student had been admitted. Foraker refuted these charges without stating that he was a candidate for office. Sony VAIO VGN-NW380F/S Battery He arrived at the convention to the strains of "Marching Through Georgia", in reference to his Civil War service, and won an easy first-ballot victory: according to Walters, "the Springfield convention of 1885 marked the arrival of Foraker, the politician."[33] The major issues in the fall campaign were again the liquor question, Sony VAIO VGN-NW380F/T Battery at which Foraker proved more adept than two years previously, and treatment of the African-American voter, prompted by an incident in Cincinnati in 1884 when a Democratic-minded policeman, Mike Mullen, locked up 150 African Americans the night before the general election to prevent them from voting. Sony VAIO VGN-NW50JB Battery Foraker was again opposed by Hoadly, who had pardoned Mullen, and who had accepted a $150,000 fee from the city-owned Cincinnati Southern Railway, though the governor professed not to know how he had earned it.[34] Foraker forged an alliance with African-American editor Harry C. Smith, who would be a supporter throughout his political career.[35] Sony VAIO VGN-NW51FB/N Battery On October 13, 1885, Foraker defeated Hoadly by 17,451 votes. Although he won much of the state, he did not carry Hamilton County due to election fraud. Joseph Foraker was sworn in as governor on January 12, 1886, during an intense blizzard that prevented many of the political marching clubs hoping to honor him from reaching Columbus. Sony VAIO VGN-NW51FB/W Battery In his inaugural address, he urged election reform, creation of a liquor licensing bureau, the abolition of laws that discriminated against African Americans, and the establishment of a state board of health. With a Republican majority in both houses, the legislature enacted many of his proposals, including the Poorman Law, Sony VAIO VGN-NW70JB Battery requiring voter registration in Cleveland and Cincinnati (and later in all large cities), as well as the Pugsley Law, which established nonpartisan boards to appoint election officials. The Ohio State Journal commented, "Not all that is needed in the way of amendments to the election laws of Ohio, but it will do for a starter."[37] Sony VAIO VGN-NW71FB/N Battery The Dow Law imposed an annual tax on businesses in the alcohol trade; most of the proceeds would go for poor relief and to the police fund.[38] With Foraker's support, the remaining laws that allowed racial discrimination in Ohio were repealed.[39] Foraker became popular during his governorship for "waving the bloody shirt",Sony VAIO VGN-NW71FB/W Battery that is, castigating the South for the Civil War. President Cleveland in 1887 requested northern governors to return captured Confederate battle flags. When Foraker was asked by a supporter if he would allow the banners to go South, he responded by telegraph, "No rebel flags will be returned while I am governor."[40] Sony VAIO VGN-NW91FS Battery Cleveland backed down, and Foraker was hailed as a hero by many, receiving thousands of congratulatory messages. Foraker criticized the President for vetoing a bill increasing war pensions and for going fishing onDecoration Day. When the governor visited Philadelphia later that year for the centennial of the Constitution, Sony VAIO VGN-NW91GS Battery he rode at the head of a regiment of Ohio militia past the reviewing stand on which Cleveland stood. When Foraker saluted, Cleveland removed his hat, but did not bow slightly as he had for other state governors. Later that day, Foraker led a troop of Grand Army of the Republic veterans past Cleveland's reviewing stand in another parade, bearing an array of captured battle flags.[41] Sony VAIO VGN-NW91VS Battery Until mid-1888, Foraker had the enthusiastic support of Hanna, who, while still boosting John Sherman for president, was a generous contributor to the governor's 1885 and 1887 campaigns. Hanna hoped to be able to dispense patronage in northern Ohio. According to Hanna biographer William T. Horner, Sony VAIO VGN-AW93ZHS Battery however, "unfortunately for Hanna, Foraker largely refused to grant Hanna the authority that by tradition he probably had earned."[42]One example, later cited by Foraker as a reason his close relationship with Hanna ended, was the question of the position of state oil inspector, whose substantial fees were paid, not by the taxpayer, Sony VAIO VGN-BZ11EN Battery but by the oil companies, and who was permitted to appoint large numbers of deputies.[43] In 1885, soon after Foraker's inauguration, Hanna advocated the appointment of William M. Bayne, while Congressman McKinley pressed the name of Edwin Hartshorn. Hanna agreed to withdraw Bayne, Sony VAIO VGN-BZ11MN Battery not to accommodate McKinley, but to save Foraker from a difficulty. Hanna wrote to Foraker, "I had a call from Major[a] McKinley and his oil inspector candidate. ... I tell him he 'wants the earth' …"[44] However, Foraker instead reappointed the incumbent, Louis Smithnight.[45]One of the men appointed deputy oil inspector was Harry Smith, Sony VAIO VGN-BZ11XN Battery the African-American editor who had supported Foraker in the 1885 election.[46] McKinley again approached Foraker after his re-election in 1887 seeking Hartshorn's appointment; however, Foraker appointed George B. Cox, Republican boss of Cincinnati, as chief though Smithnight was retained as a deputy. In later years, Sony VAIO VGN-BZ12VN Battery Foraker suggested the dispute over the oil inspectorship was a reason for Hanna breaking from him and allying with McKinley, stating after Hanna's death in 1904, "I have often thought since that my appointment of Cox made McKinley president." Walters traces fissures between Foraker's supporters and those of Sherman from as early as 1887. Sony VAIO VGN-BZ12XN Battery Foraker's meteoric rise in Ohio politics was a threat to Sherman, especially as Foraker was likely to seek another office after completing his time as governor. In 1887, McKinley, Hanna, Sherman, and others met at the congressman's home in Canton and decided to push for Sherman's endorsement for president by the 1887 Republican state convention in Toledo, Sony VAIO VGN-BZ31VT Battery and to threaten Foraker should he refuse to get in line.[47]Despite some anti-Sherman feeling in Ohio, the resolution to endorse Sherman was adopted unanimously by the same convention that renominated Foraker,[48]and later that year, the governor was re-elected.[39] Sherman was a leading candidate for the 1888 Republican presidential nomination, Sony VAIO VGN-BZ31XT Battery commanding the support of Ohio, much of Pennsylvania, and the South. Uncertainty over whether Blaine would be a candidate hung over the1888 Republican National Convention in June in Chicago. Although Blaine had stated he was not running, his devotees hoped he might change his mind. Sony VAIO VGN-BZ560 Battery Sherman did not fully trust Foraker, and gave over the management of his campaign to Hanna; the presidential candidate also declined to have Foraker place his name in nomination[49] in favor of Daniel H. Hastings of Pennsylvania. At the convention, Foraker seconded Hastings' nomination of Sherman, Sony VAIO VGN-BZ560N24 Battery but the senator, on the first ballot, received few votes outside the states known to back him.[50] Sherman's southern support was discounted, as those states would not vote for the Republican nominee, and Sherman had paid the travel expenses of those delegates, who were for the most part African Americans.[51] Sony VAIO VGN-BZ560N30 Battery By the fourth ballot, on Saturday, June 23, Sherman had about the same number of votes he had started with, but was being challenged by a surge from former Indiana senator Benjamin Harrison. The convention then adjourned until Monday, June 25. With almost two days for intrigue, rumors swept through the convention that Blaine would be a candidate after all. Sony VAIO VGN-BZ560P Battery Late on Saturday night, Foraker released a statement that he would support Blaine. Walters proffered several reasons for the switch: Foraker felt Sherman had no chance, resented not being thanked by Sherman for the seconding speech, and was annoyed at the trickle of votes McKinley had received, Sony VAIO VGN-BZ560P20 Battery feeling that the congressman was being prepared as a backup candidate for the Sherman forces. There was also talk that Foraker might gain a place on the ticket, either for president or vice president, though he stated he would not accept a nomination without Sherman's consent. Sony VAIO VGN-BZ560P22 Battery The switch wounded Sherman's candidacy by showing that his own state's governor did not support him, and even though Foraker switched back to Sherman when Blaine wired reiterating that he was not a candidate, the damage was done; Harrison gained the nomination on the eighth ballot.[52] Sony VAIO VGN-BZ560P28 Battery According to Horner, Foraker's temporary abandonment of Sherman was "the move that seems to have shattered his relationship with Hanna permanently".[53] However, Foraker gave other reasons for the break, stating after Hanna's death that one reason for it was that Hanna bought up the extra tickets of black Southern convention delegates, Sony VAIO VGN-BZ560P30 Battery a practice that the governor considered corrupt. J.B. Morrow, the newspaper publisher who took Foraker's statement as source material for Herbert Croly's 1912 biography of Hanna, disagreed: "it was understood at the time that his [Foraker's] heart was not in Sherman's candidacy …Sony VAIO VGN-BZ560P34 Battery his outraged feelings over Hanna's bargaining with Southern delegates can't be believed by me."[54] According to Horner, "the split between Foraker and Hanna had a profound impact on the subsequent behavior of both men, their careers in politics, and the Republican Party in Ohio, which was fractured by the dispute."[55] Sony VAIO VGN-BZ561 Battery Harrison was elected in November 1888 over President Cleveland.[56] By 1889, Foraker was openly opposed by a faction of Ohio Republicans, led by Hanna, Sherman and McKinley.[57] Foraker felt relieved at the break, writing to a friend, "From Toledo to Chicago, my neck was under a yoke, but now I am free."[58] Sony VAIO VGN-BZ561N20 Battery Despite the factional opposition, he sought a third term in 1889, hoping that if Republicans kept their majority in the legislature, he could be elected to the Senate as Sherman's junior colleague in the legislative election to be held in January 1890.[b][57] He was renominated at the 1889 state convention in Columbus on the second ballot, as the opposition to him was divided.[59] Sony VAIO VGN-BZ561P20 Battery A law for the Sunday closing of saloons had been passed under Foraker; when Cincinnati Mayor John B. Mosby proposed to enforce the law against local opposition, Foraker wired to Mosby the support of the state government. This stance alienated many anti-Prohibition Republicans.[60Sony VAIO VGN-BZ562P Battery ] Another damaging incident was Foraker's claim, based on documents he procured that turned out to be forged, that Democratic gubernatorial candidateJames E. Campbell had supported the adoption of a ballot box made by a company in which Campbell supposedly had a financial interest. Sony VAIO VGN-BZ563P Battery The documents also bore the signatures of Sherman, McKinley, and other Foraker enemies; they were later shown to have been taken from franked mail. Campbell was not in fact involved with the company, and the affair cost Foraker votes. A congressional committee conducted an investigation in 1891 and cleared all of those whose signatures had been reproduced. Sony VAIO VGN-BZAAFS Battery However, it blamed Foraker for using the documents without verifying their authenticity. By then, Foraker was no longer governor, having been defeated by Campbell by 10,873 votes out of some 750,000 cast.[60] McKinley biographer H. Wayne Morgan noted, "Clearly Foraker acted hastily and unwisely because of his desperate fight against Campbell and his bitterness towards the Shermanites."[61] Sony VAIO VGN-BZAAHS Battery The defeat had consequences for Foraker; according to another of McKinley's biographers, Kevin Phillips: "when Foraker lost his bid for a third statehouse term, McKinley became Ohio's next-in-line presidential favorite son". Defeated for re-election, Foraker returned to Cincinnati and the practice of law.[63] Sony VAIO VGN-BZAANS Battery

Tuesday, March 19, 2013

The first vice president was allowed

The first vice president was allowed to craft legislation and participate in debates, but those rights were taken away relatively quickly. John Adams seldom missed a session, but later vice presidents made Senate attendance a rarity. Interestingly, although the founders intended the Senate to be the slower legislative body, in the early years of the Republic, Sony Vaio VGN-NR31J/S Battery it was the House that took its time passing legislation. Alexander Hamilton’s Bank of the United States and Assumption Bill (he was then Treasury Secretary), both of which were controversial, easily passed the Senate, only to meet opposition from the House. Sony Vaio VGN-NR31MR/S Battery In 1797, Thomas Jefferson began the vice presidential tradition of only attending Senate sessions on special occasions. Despite his frequent absences, Jefferson did make his mark on the body with the Senate book of parliamentary procedure, one that is still used to this day. Sony Vaio VGN-NR31S/S Battery The decades before the American Civil War are thought of as the "Golden Age" of the Senate. Backed by public opinion and President Jefferson, in 1804, the House voted to impeach Supreme Court Justice Samuel Chase 73–32. The Senate voted against conviction 18–16. Sony Vaio VGN-NR31SR/S Battery The Senate seemed to bring out the best in Aaron Burr, who as vice president presided over the impeachment trial. At the conclusion of the trial Burr said: This House is a sanctuary; a citadel of law, of order, and of liberty; and it is here–in this exalted refuge; here if anywhere, will resistance be made to the storms of political phrensy and the silent arts of corruption. (Master of the Senate, 14). Sony Vaio VGN-NR31Z/S Battery Even Burr's many critics conceded that he handled himself with great dignity, and the trial with fairness. Over the next few decades the Senate rose in reputation in the United States and the world. John C. Calhoun, Daniel Webster, Thomas Hart Benton, Stephen A. Douglas, and Henry Clay overshadowed several presidents. Sony Vaio VGN-NR31Z/T Battery Sir Henry Maine called the Senate "the only thoroughly successful institution which has been established since the tide of modern democracy began to run." William Ewart Gladstone said the Senate was "the most remarkable of all the inventions of modern politics." (Ibid, 23) Sony Vaio VGN-NR31ZR/S Battery Among the greatest of debates in Senate history was the Webster-Hayne debate of January 1830, pitting the sectional interests of Daniel Webster's New England against Robert Y. Hayne's South. During the pre-Civil War decades, the nation had two contentious arguments over the North-South balance in the Senate. Sony Vaio VGN-NR38E/S Battery Since the banning of slavery north of theMason-Dixon line there had always been equal numbers of slave and free states. In the Missouri Compromise of 1820, brokered by Henry Clay, Maine was admitted to the Union as a free state to counterbalance Missouri. Sony Vaio VGN-NR38M/S Battery The Compromise of 1850, brokered by Henry Clay and Stephen Douglas, helped postpone the Civil War. In the post-Civil War era, the Senate dealt with great national issues such as Reconstruction and monetary policy. Given the strong political parties of theThird Party System, Sony Vaio VGN-NR38S/S Battery the leading politicians controlled enough support in state legislatures to be elected Senators. In an age of unparalled industrial expansion, entrepreneurs had the prestige previously reserved to victorious generals, and many were elected to the Senate. In 1890-1910 a handful of Republicans controlled the chamber, led by Nelson Aldrich (Rhode Island), Sony Vaio VGN-NR38Z/S Battery Orville H. Platt (Connecticut), John Coit Spooner(Wisconsin), William Boyd Allison (Iowa), along with national party leader Mark Hanna (Ohio). Aldrich designed all the major tax and tariff laws of the early 20th century, including the Federal reserve system. Among the Democrats Arthur Pue Gorman of Maryland stood out. Sony Vaio VGN-NR38Z/T Battery From 1871 to 1898, the Senate did not approve any treaties. The Senate scuttled a long series of reciprocal trade agreements, blocked deals to annex theDominican Republic and the U.S. Virgin Islands, defeated an arbitration deal with Britain, and forced the renegotiation of the pact to build the Panama Canal. Sony Vaio VGN-NR31E/S Battery Finally, in 1898, the Senate nearly refused to ratify the treaty that ended the Spanish-American War.The Senate underwent several significant changes during the presidency of Woodrow Wilson, the most profound of which was the ratification of the 17th Amendmentin 1913, which provided for election of senators by popular vote rather than appointment by the state legislatures. Sony VPCW11S1E/P Battery Another change that occurred during the presidency of Woodrow Wilson was the limitation of the filibuster through the cloture vote. The filibuster was first used in the early Republic, but was seldom seen during most of the 19th century. It was limited as a response to the filibuster of the arming of merchant ships in World War I. Sony VPCW11S1E/P Battery At that time, the public, the House, the great majority of the Senate, and the president wanted merchant ships armed, but less than 20 Senators, led by William Jennings Bryan fought to keep US ships unarmed. Wilson denounced the group as a "group of willful men".Sony VPCW11S1E/T Battery The post of Senate Majority Leader was also created during the Wilson presidency. Before this time, a Senate leader was usually a committee chairman, or a person of great eloquence, seniority, or wealth, such as Daniel Webster and Nelson Aldrich. However, despite this new, Sony VPCW11S1E/W Battery formal leadership structure, the Senate leader initially had virtually no power, other than priority of recognition from the presiding officer. Since the Democrats were fatally divided into northern liberal and southern conservative blocs, the Democratic leader had even less power than his title suggested. Sony VPCW12S1E/P Battery Joseph T. Robinson of Arkansas, the Democratic leader for many years, saw it as his responsibility not to lead the Democrats, but to work the Senate for the president’s benefit, no matter who the president was. When Coolidge and Hoover were president, he assisted them in passing Republican legislation. Sony VPCW12S1E/T Battery Robinson helped end government operation of Muscle Shoals, helped pass the Hoover Tariff, and stymied a Senate investigation of the Power Trust. Robinson switched his own position on a drought relief program for farmers when Hoover made a proposal for a more modest measure. Sony VAIO VGN-NR21E/S Battery Alben Barkley called Robinson’s cave-in “the most humiliating spectacle that could be brought about in an intelligent legislative body.” When Franklin Roosevelt became president, Robinson followed the new president as loyally as he had followed Coolidge and Hoover. Sony VAIO VGN-NR21J/S Battery Robinson passed bills in the Hundred Days so quickly that Will Rogers joked “Congress doesn’t pass legislation any more, they just wave at the bills as they go by.” (Master of the Senate, 354–5) In 1937 the Senate opposed Roosevelt’s “court packing” plan and successfully called for reduced deficits. Sony VAIO VGN-NR21S/S Battery The popular Senate drama of the early 1950s was Wisconsin Senator Joseph McCarthy's investigations of alleged communists. After years of unchallenged power, McCarthy fell as a result of producing little hard evidence for his claims while the claims themselves became more elaborate, even questioning the leadership of the United States Army. Sony VAIO VGN-NR21S/T Battery McCarthy was censured by the Senate in 1954. Prior to World War II, Senate majority leader had few formal powers. But in 1937, the rule giving majority leader right of first recognition was created. With the addition of this rule, the Senate majority leader enjoyed far greater control over the agenda of which bills to be considered on the floor. Sony VAIO VGN-NR11Z/T Battery During Lyndon Baines Johnson’s tenure as Senate leader, the leader gained new powers over committee assignments. The United States has a federal government, with elected officials at the federal (national), state and local levels. Sony VAIO VGN-NR11Z/S Battery On a national level, the head of state, the President, is elected indirectly by the people, through anElectoral College. Today, the electors virtually always vote with the popular vote of their state. All members of the federal legislature, the Congress, are directly elected. Sony VAIO VGN-NR11S/S Battery There are many elected offices at state level, each state having at least an elective governor and legislature. There are also elected offices at the local level, in counties and cities. It is estimated that across the whole country, over one million offices are filled in every electoral cycle. Sony VAIO VGN-NR11M/S Battery State law regulates most aspects of the election, including primaries, the eligibility of voters (beyond the basic constitutional definition), the running of each state's electoral college, and the running of state and local elections. The United States Constitution defines (to a basic extent) how federal elections are held, Sony VAIO VGN-SR11M Battery inArticle One and Article Two and various amendments. The federal government has also been involved in attempts to increase voter turnout, by measures such as the National Voter Registration Act of 1993. The financing of elections has always been controversial, because private sources make up substantial amounts of campaign contributions, especially in federal elections. Sony VAIO VGN-SR11MR Battery Voluntary public funding for candidates willing to accept spending limits was introduced in 1974 for presidential primaries and elections. The Federal Elections Commission, created in 1975 by an amendment to the Federal Election Campaign Act has the responsibility to disclose campaign finance information, Sony VAIO VGN-SR19VN Battery to enforce the provisions of the law such as the limits and prohibitions on contributions, and to oversee the public funding of U.S. presidential elections. The eligibility of an individual for voting is set out in the constitution and also regulated at state level.Sony VPCCW1S1R Battery The constitution states that suffrage cannot be denied on grounds of race or color, sex or age for citizens eighteen years or older. Beyond these basic qualifications, it is the responsibility of state legislatures to regulate voter eligibility. Some states ban convicted criminals, especially felons, from voting for a fixed period of time or indefinitely. Sony VPCCW1S1T Battery The number of American adults who are currently or permanently ineligible to vote due to felony convictions is estimated to be 5.3 million.[1] Some states also have legacy constitutional statements barring the "insane" or "idiots" from voting; such references are generally considered obsolete and are being considered for review or removal where they appear. Sony VPCCW1S1T/R Battery Every state except North Dakota requires that citizens who wish to vote be registered. Some states allow citizens to register to vote on the same day of the election, see below. Traditionally, voters had to register at state offices to vote, but in the mid-1990s efforts were made by the federal government to make registering easier, in an attempt to increase turnout. Sony VPCCW1S1T/W Battery The National Voter Registration Act of 1993 (the "Motor Voter" law) required state governments that receive certain types of federal funding to make the voter registration process easier by providing uniform registration services through drivers' license registration centers, disability centers, schools, libraries, and mail-in registration. Sony VPCCW1Z4E Battery States with same-day registration are exempt from Motor Voter; namely: Idaho, Minnesota, New Hampshire, North Dakota, Wisconsin, and Wyoming. Voters unable or unwilling to vote at polling stations on Election Day can vote via absentee ballots. Sony VPCCW12EN/BU Battery Absentee ballots are most commonly sent and received via the United States Postal Service. Despite their name, absentee ballots are often requested and submitted in person. About half of all states and U.S. territories allow "no excuse absentee," where no reason is required to request an absentee ballot. Sony VAIO VGN-FW139E Battery Others require a valid reason, such as infirmity or travel, be given before a voter can participate using an absentee ballot. Some states, including California,[3] and Washington[4][5] allow citizens to apply for permanent absentee voter status, which will automatically receive an absentee ballot for each election. Sony VAIO VGN-FW139N Battery Typically a voter must request an absentee ballot before the election occurs. A significant source of absentee ballots is the population of Americans living outside the United States. In 1986 Congress enacted the Uniformed and Overseas Citizens Absentee Voting Act (UOCAVA). Sony VAIO VGN-FW140E Battery UOCAVA requires that the states and territories allow members of the United States Uniformed Services and merchant marine, their family members, and United States citizens residing outside the United States to register and vote absentee in elections for Federal offices. Sony VAIO VGN-FW145E Battery Though many states had pre-existing statutes in place UOCAVA made it mandatory and nationally uniform. "Generally, all U.S. citizens 18 years or older who are or will be residing outside the United States during an election period are eligible to vote absentee in any election for Federal office. In addition, Sony VAIO VGN-FW160E Battery all members of the Uniformed Services, their family members and members of the Merchant Marine and their family members, who are U.S. citizens, may vote absentee in Federal, state and local elections."[6]Absentee ballots from these voters can often be transmitted private delivery services, fax, or email. Sony VAIO VGN-FW180E Battery Mail ballots are similar in many respects to an absentee ballot. However they are used for Mailing Precincts where on Election Day no polling place is opened for a specific precinct.[8] In Oregon and Washington, all ballots are delivered through the mail. Sony VAIO VGN-FW190E Battery Voters casting their ballots in polling places record their votes most commonly with optical scan voting machines or DRE voting machines. Voting machine selection is typically done through a state's local election jurisdiction including counties, cities, and townships. Sony VAIO VPCS11B7E Battery Many of these local jurisdictions have changed their voting equipment since 2000 due to the passage of the Help America Vote Act (HAVA), which allocated funds for the replacement of lever machine andpunch card voting equipment. The United States has a presidential system of government, which means that the executive and legislature are elected separately. Sony VAIO VPCS11M1E/W Battery Article One of the United States Constitution requires that any election for the U.S. President must occur on a single day throughout the country; elections for Congressional offices, however, can be held at different times. Congressional and presidential elections take place simultaneously every four years, Sony VAIO VPCS11M9R/B Battery and the intervening Congressional elections, which take place every two years, are called Midterm elections. The constitution states that members of the United States House of Representatives must be at least 25 years old, a citizen of the United States for at least seven years, and be a (legal) inhabitant of the state they represent. Sony VAIO VPCS11V9E/B Battery Senators must be at least 30 years old, a citizen of the United States for at least nine years, and be a (legal) inhabitant of the state they represent. The President must be at least 35 years old, a natural born citizen of the United States and a resident in the United States for at least fourteen years. Sony VAIO VPCS12A7E Battery It is the responsibility of state legislatures to regulate the qualifications for a candidate appearing on a ballot paper, although in order to get onto the ballot, a candidate must often collect a legally defined number of signatures. The President and the Vice President are elected together in a Presidential election.[9] Sony VAIO VPCS12A7R Battery The election is indirect, the winner being determined by votes cast by electors of the Electoral College. In modern times, voters in each state select a slate of electors from a list of several slates designated by different parties or candidates, and the electors typically promise in advance to vote for the candidates of their party (whose names usually appear on the ballot rather than those of the individual electors). Sony VAIO VPCS12B7E Battery The winner of the election is the candidate with at least 270 Electoral College votes. It is possible for a candidate to win the electoral vote, and lose the (nationwide) popular vote (receive fewer votes nationwide than the second ranked candidate). Sony VAIO VPCS12C5E Battery Until the Twelfth Amendment to the United States Constitution of 1804, the runner-up in a Presidential election[10] became the Vice President. Electoral College votes are cast by individual states by a group of electors, each elector casts one electoral college vote. Sony VAIO VPCS12D7E Battery Until the Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution of 1961 the District of Columbia citizens did not have representation and/or electors in the electoral college. In modern times, with electors usually committed to vote for a party candidate in advance, Sony VAIO VPCS11V9E Battery electors that vote against the popular vote in their state are called faithless electors, and occurrences are rare. State law regulates how states cast their electoral college votes. In all states except Maine and Nebraska, the candidate that wins the most votes in the state receives all its electoral college votes (a "winner takes all" system). Sony VAIO VPCS11X9E Battery From 1969 in Maine, and from 1991 in Nebraska, two electoral votes are awarded based on the winner of the statewide election, and the rest (two in Maine, three in Nebraska) go to the highest vote-winner in each of the state's congressional districts. Incumbent Presidents and challengers usually seek to have a "balanced ticket", Dell 312-0749 Battery so that the Presidential candidate and the Vice Presidential candidates have complementary political support and political roles, allowing them to do well among different constituencies. Usually, there is some kind of balance, for example geographical, ideological, or in terms of (especially federal) government experience. Dell FU571 Battery The nominated Vice Presidential candidate is called the "running mate". Although incumbent Presidents can be challenged in the primaries, none have lost their party's nomination in recent times (although Gerald Ford in 1976 came close). The last incumbent President to not seek a second term was Lyndon B. Johnson, Dell KY265 Battery who stepped down after serving the remainder of John F. Kennedy's term and another full term (he was eligible for another term). The electoral college has long been criticized, for several reasons. It has been criticized[by whom?]for being undemocratic compared to a direct system of election. Dell KY285 Battery Another criticism is that creates inequality between voters in different states during the presidential election. Usually, only voters in swing statesdetermine the outcome of the election and as a result, it is claimed[by whom?] that the vast majority of Americans, who live in non-competitive states, are largely ignored by political campaigns. Dell MN631 Battery If the electoral college were abolished and if the whole country were treated as one district for Presidential elections, then the result would not depend on crucial swing states. The US Constitution deliberately created an inequality in the votes of very low population states, which are given a minimum of 3 Electoral college (EC) votes, Dell PT434 Battery and are therefore overrepresented compared with voters from larger states. For example, Wyoming has a population of 493,782 and 3 EC votes, 164,594 people per EC vote. California has a population of 33,871,648 and 55 EC votes, 615,848 people per EC vote. Abolishing the college and replacing it with a national direct system would also prevent a candidate from receiving fewer votes nationwide than their opponent, Dell Studio 17 Battery but still winning more electoral votes, which last occurred in the 2000 Presidential election. Also, the EC deliberately magnifies the vote for those receiving a higher percentage of the vote, thereby discriminating against candidates who do not have support concentrated in several states. Dell Studio 1735 Battery In 1992, Ross Perot won 18.9% of the national vote, but received no electoral college votes. The electoral college would require a constitutional amendment to be abolished, and since three-quarters of state legislatures would be required to ratify an amendment that would effectively redistribute voting power from many small states to numerically fewer large states, it is thought[by whom?]that an amendment would fail. Dell Studio 1737 Battery The House of Representatives has 435 members, elected for a two year term in single-seat constituencies. House of Representatives elections are held every two years on the first Tuesday after November 1 in even years. House elections are first-past-the-post elections that elect a Representative from each of 435 House districts which cover the United States. Dell Studio 15 Battery Special House elections can occur between if a member dies or resigns during a term. The delegates of the territories of American Samoa, District of Columbia, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, Puerto Rico and the United States Virgin Islands are also elected. House elections occur every two years, correlated with presidential elections or halfway through a President's term. Dell Studio 1537 Battery Typically, when a House election occurs in the same year as a presidential election, the party of the presidential winner will gain seats. On the other hand, there is a historical pattern that the incumbent president's party loses seats in elections that are held in the middle of a presidential term. Dell Studio 1536 Battery This may be because the President's popularity has slipped since election, or because the President's popularity encouraged supporters to come out to vote for him in the presidential election, but these supporters are less likely to vote when the President is not up for election. Dell Studio 1555 Battery As the redistricting commissions of states are often partisan, districts are often drawn which benefit incumbents. An increasing trend has been for incumbents to have an overwhelming advantage in House elections, and since the 1994 election, an unusually low number of seats has changed hands in each electionDell Studio 1557 Battery Due to gerrymandering, fewer than 10% of all House seats are contested in each election cycle. Over 90% of House members are reelected every two years, due to lack of electoral competition. Gerrymandering of the House, combined with the divisions inherent in the design of the Senate and of the Electoral College, Dell LATITUDE D600 Battery result in a discrepancy between the percentage of popular support for various political parties and the actual level of the parties' representation. State law and state constitutions, controlled by state legislatures regulate elections at state level and local level. Various officials at state level are elected. Dell Latitude D610 Battery Since the separation of powers applies to states as well as the federal government, state legislatures and the executive (the governor) are elected separately. Governors and lieutenant governor are elected in all states, in some states on a joint ticket and in some states separately, some separately in different electoral cycles. Dell Latitude D620 Battery The governors of the territories of American Samoa, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, Puerto Rico and the United States Virgin Islands are also elected. In some states, executive positions such as Attorney General and Secretary of State are also elected offices. Dell Latitude D630 Battery All members of state legislatures and territorial jurisdiction legislatures are elected, state senators and state representatives/assembly members. Nebraska's legislature is unicameral, so only senators are elected. In some states, members of the state supreme court and other members of the state judiciary are elected. Dell LATITUDE D800 Battery Proposals to amend the state constitution are also placed on the ballot in some states. As a matter of convenience and cost saving, elections for many of these state and local offices are held at the same time as either the federal presidential or midterm elections. Dell Latitude D820 Battery There are a handful of states, however, that instead hold their elections during odd-numbered "off years." Dell Latitude D830 Battery,Dell Latitude E5410 Battery,Dell Latitude E5420 Battery