Battle of Midway

The Battle of Midway (Japanese:  Rōmaji: Middowē Kaisen) is widely regarded as the most important naval battle of the Pacific Campaign of World War II. Between 4 and 7 June 1942, only six months after Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor, and one month after the Battle of the Coral Sea, Sony VAIO VGN-SZ35B/B Battery

the United States Navydecisively defeated an Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) attack against Midway Atoll, inflicting irreparable damage on the Japanese fleet.^[8] Military historian John Keegan has called it "the most stunning and decisive blow in the history of naval warfare."^[9] Sony VAIO VGN-SZ54B/B Battery

The Japanese operation, like the earlier attack on Pearl Harbor, sought to eliminate the United States as a strategic power in the Pacific, thereby giving Japan a free hand in establishing its Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere. The Japanese hoped that another demoralizing defeat would force the U.S. to capitulate in thePacific War.^[10] Sony VAIO VGN-SZ55B/B Battery

The Japanese plan was to lure the United States' aircraft carriers into a trap.^[11] The Japanese also intended to occupy Midway Atoll as part of an overall plan to extend their defensive perimeter in response to the Doolittle Raid. This operation was also considered preparatory for further attacks against Fiji and Samoa. Sony VAIO VGN-SZ55GN/B Battery

The plan was handicapped by faulty Japanese assumptions of the American reaction and poor initial dispositions.^[12] Most significantly, American codebreakers were able to determine the date and location of the attack, enabling the forewarned U.S. Navy to set up an ambush of its own. Sony VAIO VGN-SZ56 Battery

Four Japanese aircraft carriers and aheavy cruiser were sunk for a cost of one American aircraft carrier and a destroyer. After Midway, and the exhausting attrition of the Solomon Islands campaign, Japan's shipbuilding and pilot training programs were unable to keep pace in replacing their losses while the U.S. steadily increased its output in both areas. Sony VAIO VGN-SZ561N Battery

Japan had attained its initial strategic goals quickly, taking the Philippines, Malaya, Singapore, and the Dutch East Indies (now Indonesia); the latter, with its vital resources, was particularly important to Japan. Sony VAIO VGN-SZ562N Battery

Because of this, preliminary planning for a second phase of operations commenced as early as January 1942. However, there were strategic disagreements between the Imperial Army and Imperial Navy, and infighting between the Navy's GHQand Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto's Combined Fleet, Sony VAIO VGN-SZ57N Battery

such that a follow-up strategy was not formulated until April 1942.^[14] Admiral Yamamoto finally succeeded in winning the bureaucratic struggle by using a thinly veiled threat to resign, after which his operational concept of further operations in the Central Pacific was accepted ahead of other competing plans.^[15] Sony VAIO VGN-SZ58GN Battery

Yamamoto's primary strategic goal was the elimination of America's carrier forces, which he perceived as the principal threat to the overall Pacific campaign.^{[nb 1]} This concern was acutely heightened by the Doolittle Raid (18 April 1942) in which USAAF B-25 Mitchells launched from USS Hornet bombed targets in Tokyo and several other Japanese cities. Sony VAIO VGN-SZ58GN/C Battery

The raid, while militarily insignificant, was a severe psychological shock to the Japanese and showed the existence of a gap in the defenses around the Japanese home islands.This and other successful "hit and run" raids by American carriers, showed that they were still a threat although, seemingly, reluctant to be drawn into an all-out battle. Sony VAIO VGN-SZ58N Battery

Yamamoto reasoned that another attack on the main U.S base at Pearl Harborwould induce all of the American fleet to sail out to fight, including the carriers; however, given the strength of American land-based air power on Hawaii, he judged that Pearl Harbor could no longer be attacked directly.^[18] Sony VAIO VGN-SZ61MN/B Battery

Instead, he selected Midway, at the extreme northwest end of the Hawaiian Island chain, some 1,300 mi (1,100 nmi; 2,100 km) from Oahu. Midway was not especially important in the larger scheme of Japan's intentions, but the Japanese felt the Americans would consider Midway a vital outpost of Pearl Harbor and would therefore strongly defend it.^[19] Sony VAIO VGN-SZ61VN/X Battery

The U.S. did consider Midway vital; after the battle, establishment of a U.S. submarine base on Midway allowed submarines operating from Pearl Harbor to refuel and reprovision, extending their radius of operations by 1,200 mi (1,900 km). An airstrip on Midway served as a forward staging point for bomber attacks on Wake Island.^[20] Sony VAIO VGN-SZ61WN/C Battery

Yamamoto's plan, Operation Mai

Typical of Japanese naval planning during World War II, Yamamoto's battle plan was exceedingly complex.^[21] Additionally, his design was predicated on optimistic intelligence suggesting USS Enterprise and USS Hornet, Sony VAIO VGN-SZ640N/B Battery

forming Task Force 16, were the only carriers available to the U.S. Pacific Fleet at the time. At the Battle of the Coral Sea just a month earlier,USS Lexington had been sunk and USS Yorktown damaged severely enough that the Japanese believed her also to have been sunk. Sony VAIO VGN-SZ645P3 Battery

The Japanese were also aware that USS Saratoga was undergoing repairs on the West Coast after suffering torpedo damage from a submarine.

However, more important was Yamamoto's belief the Americans had been demoralized by their frequent defeats during the preceding six months. Sony VAIO VGN-SZ650N/C Battery

Yamamoto felt deception would be required to lure the U.S. fleet into a fatally compromised situation.^[22] To this end, he dispersed his forces so that their full extent (particularly his battleships) would be unlikely to be discovered by the Americans prior to battle. Sony VAIO VGN-SZ660N/C Battery

Critically, Yamamoto's supporting battleships and cruisers would trail Vice-Admiral Chūichi Nagumo's carrier striking force by several hundred miles. Japan's heavy surface forces were intended to destroy whatever part of the U.S. fleet might come to Midway's relief, Sony VAIO VGN-SZ670N/C Battery

once Nagumo's carriers had weakened them sufficiently for a daylight gun duel;^[23] this was typical of the battle doctrine of most major navies.^[24]

Yamamoto did not know that the U.S. had broken the main Japanese naval code (dubbed JN-25 by the Americans). Sony VAIO VGN-SZ680ND Battery

Yamamoto's emphasis on dispersal also meant that none of his formations could support each other. For instance, the only significant warships larger than destroyers that screened Nagumo's fleet were two battleships and three cruisers, 
Sony VAIO VGN-SZ691N/X Battery

despite his carriers being expected to carry out the strikes and bear the brunt of American counterattacks. By contrast, the flotillas of Yamamoto and Kondo had between them two light carriers, five battleships, and six cruisers, none of which would see any action at Midway.^[23] Sony VAIO VGN-SZ71E/B Battery

 Their distance from Nagumo's carriers would also have grave implications during the battle, because the larger warships in Yamamoto and Kondo's forces carried scout planes, an invaluable reconnaissance capability denied to Nagumo. Sony VAIO VGN-SZ71VN/X Battery

Aleutian invasion

Likewise, the Japanese operations in the Aleutian Islands (Operation AL) removed yet more ships that could otherwise have augmented the force striking Midway. Whereas prior historical accounts have often characterized the Aleutians operation as a feint to draw American forces away, Sony VAIO VGN-SZ71WN/C Battery

recent scholarship on the battle has suggested that AL was supposed to be launched simultaneously with the attack on Midway.^[24] However, a one-day delay in the sailing of Nagumo's task force meant that Operation AL began a day before the Midway attack.^[27] Sony VAIO VGN-SZ74B/B Battery

American reinforcements

To do battle with an enemy anticipated to muster four or five carriers, Admiral Chester W. Nimitz, Commander in Chief, Pacific Ocean Areas, needed every available U.S. flight deck. Sony VAIO VGN-SZ750N/C Battery

He already had Vice Admiral William Halsey's two-carrier (Enterprise and Hornet) task force at hand, though Halsey was stricken with psoriasis and had to be replaced by Rear AdmiralRaymond A. Spruance, Halsey's escort commander.^[28] Sony VAIO VGN-SZ75B/B Battery

 Nimitz also hurriedly recalled Rear Admiral Frank Jack Fletcher's task force, including the carrier Yorktown (which had suffered considerable damage at Coral Sea), from the South West Pacific Area. It reached Pearl Harbor just in time to provision and sail.Sony VAIO VGN-SZ76 Battery

Despite estimates that Yorktown would require several months of repairs at Puget Sound Naval Shipyard, her elevators were intact, and her flight deck largely so. The Pearl Harbor Naval Shipyard worked around the clock and in 72 hours, she was restored to a battle-ready state, Sony VAIO VGN-SZ770N/C Battery

judged good enough for two or three weeks of operations, as Nimitz required.^[31] Her flight deck was patched, whole sections of internal frames cut out and replaced, and several new squadrons were drawn fromSaratoga; they did not, however, get time to train. Sony VAIO VGN-SZ77N Battery

 Nimitz disregarded established procedure in getting his third and last available carrier ready for battle. Just three days after putting into dry dock at Pearl Harbor, Yorktown was again under way. Repairs continued even as she sortied, with work crews from the repair ship USS Vestal, herself damaged in the attack on Pearl Harbor six months earlier, still aboard.^[33] Sony VAIO VGN-SZ780 Battery

On Midway, by 4 June the USN had stationed four squadrons of PBY Catalinas — 31 aircraft in total — for long-range reconnaissance duties, and six brand-new Grumman TBF-1 Avengers, the latter a detachment from Hornet's squadron VT-8.^[34] Sony VAIO VGN-SZ78N Battery

The Marine Corps had 19 SBD Dauntlesses, seven F4F-3 Wildcats, 17 Vought SB2U-3 Vindicators, and 21 Brewster F2A-3s. The USAAF contributed a squadron of 17 B-17 Flying Fortresses, along with eight B-26 Marauders equipped with torpedoes: in total 124 aircraft.^[35] Sony VAIO VGN-SZ791N/X Battery

Japanese shortcomings

Meanwhile, as a result of her participation in the Battle of the Coral Sea, the Japanese carrier Zuikaku was in port in Kure, awaiting a replacement air group. That there were none immediately available was a failure of the IJN crew training program, which already showed signs of being unable to replace losses. Sony VAIO VGN-SZ84NS Battery

Instructors from the Yokosuka Air Corps were employed in an effort to make up the shortfall.^[36] The heavily damaged Shōkaku had suffered three bomb hits at Coral Sea, and required months of repair in drydock. Despite the likely availability of sufficient aircraft between the two ships to re-equip Zuikakuwith a composite air group, Sony VAIO VGN-SZ84PS Battery

the Japanese made no serious attempt to get her into the forthcoming battle.^[37] Consequently, Admiral Nagumo would only have four fleet carriers: Kaga and Akagi forming Carrier Division 1; Hiryū and Sōryū as Carrier Division 2. Sony VAIO VGN-SZ84S Battery

At least part of this was a product of fatigue; Japanese carriers had been constantly on operations since 7 December 1941, including raids on Darwin and Colombo.

The main Japanese strike aircraft to be used were the Aichi D3A dive bomber and the Nakajima B5N2, Sony VAIO VGN-SZ84US Battery

which was capable of being used either as a torpedo bomber or as a level attack bomber. The main carrier fighter was the fast and highly maneuverableMitsubishi A6M2 "Zero".^{[nb 3]} However, the carriers of the Kido Butai were suffering from a shortage of frontline aircraft. Sony VAIO VGN-SZ85NS Battery

For various reasons, production of the D3A had been drastically reduced, while that of the B5N had been stopped completely.^[38] As a consequence, there were none available to replace losses. This also meant that many of the aircraft being used during the June 1942 operations had been operational since late November 1941; Sony VAIO VGN-SZ85S Battery

although well maintained, they were almost worn out and had become increasingly unreliable. These factors meant that all carriers had fewer than their normal aircraft complement and few spare aircraft.^[39]

Japanese strategic scouting arrangements prior to the battle were also in disarray. Sony VAIO VGN-SZ85US Battery

A picket line of Japanese submarines was late getting into position (partly because of Yamamoto's haste), which let the American carriers reach their assembly point northeast of Midway (known as "Point Luck") without being detected.A second attempt at reconnaissance, Sony VAIO VGN-SZ94NS Battery

using four-engine Kawanishi H8K flying boats to scout Pearl Harbor prior to the battle (and thereby detect the absence or presence of the American carriers), part of Operation K, was also thwarted when Japanese submarines assigned to refuel the search aircraft discovered that the intended refueling point —Sony VAIO VGN-SZ94PS Battery

a hitherto deserted bay off French Frigate Shoals — was occupied by American warships (because the Japanese had carried out an identical mission in March).^[41] Thus, Japan was deprived of any knowledge concerning the movements of the American carriers immediately before the battle. Sony VAIO VGN-SZ94S Battery

Japanese radio intercepts did notice an increase in both American submarine activity and message traffic. This information was in Yamamoto's hands prior to the battle. However, Japanese plans were not changed; Yamamoto, at sea on Yamato, did not dare inform Nagumo for fear of exposing his position and assumed that Nagumo had received the same signal from Tokyo. Sony VAIO VGN-SZ94US Battery

Nagumo's radio antennas, however, were unable to receive such long-wave transmissions, and he was left unaware of any American ship movements.^[43]

Allied code-breaking

Admiral Nimitz had one priceless asset: cryptanalysts had broken the JN-25 code. Sony VAIO VGN-SZ95NS Battery

 Since the early spring of 1942, the US had been decoding messages stating that there would soon be an operation at objective "AF." Commander Joseph J. Rochefort and his team at Station Hypo were able to confirm Midway as the target of the impending Japanese strike by having the base at Midway send a false message stating that its water distillation plant had been damaged and that the base needed fresh water. Sony VAIO VGN-SZ95S Battery

The Japanese saw this and soon started to send messages stating that "AF was short on water."^[45] Hypo was also able to determine the date of the attack as either 4 or 5 June, and to provide Nimitz with a complete IJN order of battle.^[46] Japan's efforts to introduce a new codebook had been delayed, giving HYPO several crucial days; Sony VAIO VGN-SZ95US Battery

while it was blacked out shortly before the attack began, the important breaks had already been made.

As a result, the Americans entered the battle with a very good picture of where, when, and in what strength the Japanese would appear. Sony VAIO VGN-SR72B/P Battery

Nimitz, for example, knew that the Japanese had negated their numerical advantage by dividing their ships into four separate task groups, all too widely separated to be able to support each other. Nimitz calculated that the aircraft on his three carriers, plus those on Midway Island, Sony VAIO VGN-SR72B/S Battery

gave the U.S. rough parity with Yamamoto's four carriers, mainly because American carrier air groups were larger than Japanese ones. The Japanese, by contrast, remained almost totally unaware of their opponent's true strength and dispositions even after the battle began. Sony VAIO VGN-SR73JB/S Battery

Initial air attacks

The first air attack took off at 12:30 on 3 June, consisting of nine B-17s operating from Midway. Three hours later, they found the Japanese Tanaka's transport group 570 nmi (660 mi; 1,060 km) to the west. Sony VAIO VGN-SR74FB/S Battery

Under heavy anti-aircraft fire, they dropped their bombs. Though hits were reported, none of the bombs actually hit and no significant damage was inflicted. Early the following morning, Japanese oil tanker Akebono Maru sustained the first hit when a torpedofrom an attacking PBY Catalina flying boat struck her around 01:00. Sony VAIO VGN-SR90FS Battery

This would be the only successful air launched torpedo attack by the U.S. during the entire battle.

At 04:30 on 4 June, Nagumo launched his initial attack on Midway itself, consisting of 36 Aichi D3A dive bombers and 36 Nakajima B5N torpedo bombers, escorted by 36 Mitsubishi A6M Zero fighters. Sony VAIO VGN-SR90NS Battery

At the same time, he launched combat air patrol(CAP), as well as his eight search aircraft (one from the heavy cruiser Tone launched 30 minutes late due to technical difficulties).

Japanese reconnaissance arrangements were flimsy, with too few aircraft to adequately cover the assigned search areas, Sony VAIO VGN-SR90S Battery

laboring under poor weather conditions to the northeast and east of the task force.^[51] Yamamoto's faulty dispositions had now become a serious liability.^[52]

American radar picked up the enemy at a distance of several miles and interceptors were soon scrambled. Sony VAIO VGN-SR90US Battery

Unescorted bombers headed off to attack the Japanese carrier fleet, their fighter escorts remaining behind to defend Midway. At 06:20, Japanese carrier aircraft bombed and heavily damaged the U.S. base. Midway-based Marine fighter pilots, flying F4F Wildcats and obsolescent F2As, Sony VAIO VGN-SR91NS Battery

intercepted the Japanese and suffered heavy losses, though they managed to destroy four B5Ns and at least three A6Ms. Most of the U.S. planes were downed in the first few minutes; several were damaged, and only two remained flyable. In all, three F4Fs and 13 F2As were shot down. Sony VAIO VGN-SR91PS Battery

American anti-aircraft fire was accurate and intense, damaging many Japanese aircraft and claiming one-third of the Japanese planes destroyed.^[54]

The initial Japanese attack did not succeed in neutralizing Midway. American bombers could still use the airbase to refuel and attack the Japanese invasion force; Sony VAIO VGN-SR91S Battery

another aerial attack would be necessary if troops were to go ashore by 7 June.^[55]

Having taken off prior to the Japanese attack, American bombers based on Midway made several attacks on the Japanese carrier fleet. These included six Grumman Avengers, Sony VAIO VGN-SR91US Battery

detached to Midway from the Hornet's VT-8 (Midway was the first combat mission for the VT-8 airmen, and it was the debut of the TBF into combat), Marine Scout-Bombing Squadron 241 (VMSB-241), consisting of eleven SB2U-3s and sixteen SBDs, plus four USAAF B-26s, armed with torpedoes, and fifteen B-17s. Sony VAIO VGN-SR92NS Battery

The Japanese shrugged off these attacks with two fighters lost, while destroying five TBFs, two SB2Us, eight SBDs and two B-26s.^[56][57] The first Marine aviator to perish during the battle, Major Lofton R. Henderson of VMSB-241, was killed while leading his inexperienced Dauntless squadron into action and was later honored by having the main airfield at Guadalcanal named after him in August 1942.^[58] Sony VAIO VGN-SR92PS Battery

 One B-26, hit by anti-aircraft fire from Akagi, made no attempt to pull out of its run and narrowly missed crashing directly into the carrier's bridge. This experience may well have contributed to Nagumo's determination to launch another attack on Midway, in direct violation of Yamamoto's order to keep the reserve strike force armed for anti-ship operations. Sony VAIO VGN-SR92S Battery

Nagumo's decision

Admiral Nagumo, in accordance with Japanese carrier doctrine at the time, had kept half of his aircraft in reserve. These comprised two squadrons each of dive bombers and torpedo bombers, the latter armed with torpedoes, should any American warships be located. Sony VAIO VGN-SR92US Battery

The dive bombers were, as yet, unarmed.^[60] As a result of the attacks from Midway, as well as the morning flight leader's recommendation of a second strike, at 07:15, Nagumo ordered his reserve planes to be re-armed with contact-fused general purpose bombs for use against land targets. Sony VAIO VGN-SR93DS Battery

Some sources maintain that this had been underway for about 30 minutes when, at 07:40^[61] the delayed scout plane from Tone signaled that it had sighted a sizable American naval force to the east, although it neglected to describe the composition of this force. Sony VAIO VGN-SR93JS Battery

New evidence, however, suggests Nagumo did not receive the sighting report until 08:00, so the rearming operation actually proceeded for 45 minutes.^[62] Nagumo quickly reversed his order and demanded that the scout plane ascertain the composition of the American force, Sony VAIO VGN-SR93PS Battery

but another 40 minutes elapsed before Tone's scout finally radioed the presence of a single carrier in the American force: this was one of the carriers from TF 16, the other carrier was not sighted.^[63]Nagumo was now in a quandary. Sony VAIO VGN-SR93YS Battery

Rear Admiral Tamon Yamaguchi, leading Carrier Division 2 (Hiryū and Sōryū), recommended Nagumo strike immediately with the forces at hand: 18 Aichi D3A1 dive bombers each on Sōryū and Hiryū, and half the ready cover patrol aircraft.^[64] Sony VAIO VGN-SR94FS Battery

Nagumo's seeming opportunity to hit the American ships,^[65] however, was now limited by the fact that his Midway strike force would be returning shortly and needing to land promptly or ditch (as is commonly believed).^[66] Because of the constant flight deck activity associated with combat air patrol operations during the preceding hour, Sony VAIO VGN-SR94GS Battery

the Japanese never had an opportunity to "spot" (position) their reserve for launch. The few aircraft on the Japanese flight decks at the time of the attack were either defensive fighters, or (in the case of Sōryū) fighters being spotted to augment the task force defenses.^[67] Sony VAIO VGN-SR94HS Battery

Spotting his flight decks and launching aircraft would have required at least 30–45 minutes.^[68] Furthermore, by spotting and launching immediately, Nagumo would be committing some of his reserve to battle without proper anti-ship armament; he had just witnessed how easily unescorted American bombers had been shot down.^[69] Sony VAIO VGN-SR94VS Battery

 (In the event, poor discipline saw many of the Japanese bombers ditch their bombs and attempt to dogfight intercepting F4Fs.)^[70] Japanese carrier doctrine preferred fully constituted strikes, and without confirmation (until 08:20) of whether the American force included carriers, Nagumo's reaction was doctrinaire. Sony VAIO VGN-SR290JVB/C Battery

In addition, the arrival of another American air strike at 07:53 gave weight to the need to attack the island again. In the end, Nagumo chose to wait for his first strike force to land, then launch the reserve, which would by then be properly armed and ready.^{[72] Sony VAIO VGN-SR290JVH/C Battery}

In the final analysis, it made no difference; Fletcher's carriers had launched beginning at 07:00, so the aircraft that would deliver the crushing blow were already on their way. There was nothing Nagumo could do about it. This was the fatal flaw of Yamamoto's dispositions: they followed strictly traditional battleship doctrine.^{[73] Sony VAIO VGN-SR290NTB Battery}

Attacks on the Japanese fleet

The Americans had already launched their carrier aircraft against the Japanese. Admiral Fletcher, in overall command aboardYorktown, and benefiting from PBY patrol bomber sighting reports from the early morning, ^{Sony VAIO VGN-SR29VN/S Battery}

ordered Spruance to launch against the Japanese as soon as was practical, while initially holding Yorktown in reserve should there be any other Japanese carriers discovered.^[74] (Fletcher's directions to Spruance were relayed via Nimitz who, unlike Yamamoto, had remained ashore.) ^{Sony VAIO VGN-SR29XN/S Battery}

Spruance judged that, though the range was extreme, a strike could succeed and gave the order "Launch the attack" at around 06:00. He then left Halsey's Chief of Staff, Captain Miles Browning, to work out the details and oversee the launch, which did not go smoothly. ^{Sony VAIO VGN-SR2RVN/S Battery}

It took until a few minutes after 07:00 before the first plane was able to depart from Spruance's carriers, Enterprise and Hornet. Fletcher, upon completing his own scouting flights, followed suit at 08:00 from Yorktown.^[75]

Fletcher, Yorktown's commanding officer, Captain Elliott Buckmaster, ^{Sony VAIO VGN-SR390NAB Battery}

and their staffs had acquired first-hand experience in organizing and launching a full strike against an enemy force at Coral Sea, but there was no time to pass these lessons toEnterprise and Hornet which were tasked with launching the first strike.^{[76] Sony VAIO VGN-SR390NAH Battery}

Spruance gave at this point his second crucial command, "Proceed to target" -- not to cast away precious minutes, waiting for the strike force to assemble fully, but to proceed to the target as quickly as possible, since neutralizing enemy carriers was the key to the survival of his own task force. ^{Sony VAIO VGN-SR41M/P Battery}

Spruance judged that the need to throw something at the enemy as soon as feasible was greater than the need for a coordinated attack among the different types of aircraft (fighters, bombers, torpedo planes). Accordingly, American squadrons were launched piecemeal and proceeded to the target in several different groups. ^{Sony VAIO VGN-SR41M/S Battery}

The lack of coordination was expected to diminish the overall impact of the American attacks as well as increasing their casualties. However, Spruance calculated that this risk was worth it, since keeping the Japanese under aerial attack hampered their ability to launch a counterstrike ^{Sony VAIO VGN-SR49VN/H Battery}

 (Japanese doctrine preferred fully constituted attacks), and he gambled that he could find Nagumo with his decks at their most vulnerable.^[75][76]

American carrier aircraft had difficulty locating the target, despite the positions they had been given. ^{Sony VAIO VGN-SR51B/P Battery}

The strike fromHornet, led by Commander Stanhope C. Ring, followed an incorrect heading of 263 degrees rather than the 240 heading indicated by the contact report. As a result, Air Group Eight's dive bombers missed the Japanese carriers.^[77] Torpedo Squadron 8 (VT-8, from Hornet), led by Lieutenant Commander John C. ^{Sony VAIO VGN-SR51B/S Battery}

Waldron, broke formation from Ring and followed the correct heading. Waldron's squadron sighted the enemy carriers and began attacking at 09:20, followed by Torpedo Squadron 6 (VT-6, fromEnterprise) at 09:40.^[78] Without fighter escort, all fifteen TBD Devastators of VT-8 were shot down without being able to inflict any damage, with Ensign George H. Gay, Jr. the only survivor.^{Sony VAIO VGN-SR51MF Battery}

VT-6 met nearly the same fate, with no hits to show for its effort, thanks in part to the abysmal performance of their Mark 13aircraft torpedoes;^[79] senior Navy and BuOrd officers never questioned why half a dozen torpedoes, released so close to the Japanese carriers, produced no results.^{[80] Sony VAIO VGN-SR51MF/P Battery}

The Japanese combat air patrol, flying the much faster Mitsubishi A6M2 "Zeros", made short work of the unescorted, slow, under-armed TBDs. A few TBDs managed to get within a few ship-lengths range of their targets before dropping their torpedoes, coming close enough to be able to strafe the enemy ships and force the Japanese carriers to make sharp evasive maneuvers.^{[81] Sony VAIO VGN-SR51MF/S Battery}

The American torpedo attacks indirectly achieved three important results. First, they kept the Japanese carriers off balance and unable to prepare and launch their own counterstrike. Second, they pulled the Japanese combat air patrol (CAP) out of position.^{Sony VAIO VGN-SR51MF/W Battery}

Third, many of the Zeros ran low on ammunition and fuel.^[82]The appearance of a third torpedo plane attack from the southeast by Torpedo Squadron 3 (VT-3) at 10:00 very quickly drew the majority of the Japanese CAP to the southeast quadrant of the fleet.^{[83] Sony VAIO VGN-SR51MR Battery}

 Better discipline and employment of all the Zeroes aboard might have enabled Nagumo to succeed.^[84]

By chance, at the same time VT-3 was sighted by the Japanese, three squadrons of American SBDs from Enterprise and Yorktown, VB-6, VS-6 and VB-3 respectively, ^{Sony VAIO VGN-SR59VG Battery}

were approaching the Japanese fleet from the northeast and southwest. They were running low on fuel because of the time spent looking for the enemy. However, squadron commander C. Wade McClusky, Jr. decided to continue the search and by good fortune spotted the wake of the Japanese destroyer Arashi. ^{Sony VAIO VGN-SR59VG/H Battery}

The destroyer was steaming at full speed to rejoin Nagumo's carrier force after having unsuccessfully depth-charged the U.S. submarine Nautilus, which had earlier unsuccessfully attacked the battleship Kirishima.^[85] Some bombers were lost from fuel exhaustion before the attack commenced.^{[86] Sony VAIO VGN-SR70B/S Battery}

McClusky's decision to continue the search and his judgment, in the opinion of Admiral Chester Nimitz, "decided the fate of our carrier task force and our forces at Midway...." The American dive-bombers arrived at the perfect time to attack. ^{Sony VAIO VGN-SR11M Battery}

Armed Japanese strike aircraft filled the hangar decks, fuel hoses snaked across the decks as refueling operations were hastily completed, and the repeated change of ordnance meant bombs and torpedoes were stacked around the hangars, rather than stowed safely in the magazines,^[89] making the Japanese carriers extraordinarily vulnerable. ^{Sony VAIO VGN-SR11MR Battery}

Enterprise's VB-6 and VS-6 air group split up and attacked two targets. Beginning at 10:22, McClusky and his wingmen scored hits on Kaga, while to the northAkagi was attacked four minutes later by three bombers,^[81] led by Lieutenant Commander Richard Halsey Best. ^{Sony VAIO VGN-SR140D Battery}

 Yorktown's VB-3, commanded by Max Leslie, went forSōryū, scoring hits. Simultaneously, VT-3 targeted Hiryū, which was sandwiched between Sōryū, Kaga, and Akagi, but achieved no hits. The dive-bombers left Sōryūand Kaga ablaze within six minutes. ^{Sony VAIO VGN-SR140D/B Battery}

Akagi was hit by just one bomb (dropped by Lieutenant Commander Best), which penetrated to the upper hangar deck and exploded among the armed and fueled aircraft there. One bomb exploded underwater very close astern; the resulting geyser bent the flight deck upward and also caused crucial rudder damage. ^{Sony VAIO VGN-SR140D/P Battery}

Sōryū took three bombs in her hangar deck, Kaga at least four, possibly five. All three carriers were out of action and were eventually abandoned and scuttled.^[90]

Japanese counterattacks

Hiryū, the sole surviving Japanese aircraft carrier, wasted little time in counterattacking. ^{Sony VAIO VGN-SR140D/S Battery}

The first wave of Japanese dive bombers badly damaged Yorktown with three bomb hits that snuffed out her boilers, immobilizing her: however, in about an hour her damage control teams patched her up so effectively that the second wave's torpedo bombers mistook her for an undamaged carrier. ^{Sony VAIO VGN-SR140E Battery}

Despite Japanese hopes to even the odds by eliminating two carriers with two strikes, Yorktown absorbed both Japanese attacks, the second wave mistakenly believing Yorktown had already been sunk and that they were attackingEnterprise. After two torpedo hits, ^{Sony VAIO VGN-SR140E/B Battery}

Yorktown lost power and developed a 26° list to port, which put her out of action and forced Admiral Fletcher to move his command staff to the heavy cruiser Astoria. Both carriers of Spruance's Task Force 16 were undamaged.^{[93] Sony VAIO VGN-SR140E/P Battery}

News of the two strikes, with the reports that each had sunk an American carrier, greatly improved morale in the Kido Butai. Its few surviving aircraft were all recovered aboard Hiryū, where they were prepared for a strike against what was believed to be the only remaining American carrier.^{[94] Sony VAIO VGN-SR140E/S Battery}

American counterattack

Late in the afternoon, a Yorktown scout aircraft located Hiryū, prompting Enterprise to launch a final strike of dive bombers (including 10 SBDs from Yorktown). ^{Sony VAIO VGN-SR140N/S Battery}

Despite Hiryū being defended by a strong cover of more than a dozen Zero fighters, the attack by Enterprise was successful: four, possibly five bombs hit Hiryū, leaving the carrier ablaze and unable to operate aircraft. (Hornet's strike, launched late because of a communications error, concentrated on the remaining escort ships, but failed to score any hits.) ^{Sony VAIO VGN-SR165E/B Battery}

After futile attempts at controlling the blaze, most of the remaining crew onHiryū were evacuated and the remainder of the fleet continued sailing north-east in an attempt to intercept the American carriers. Hiryū stayed afloat for several more hours, being discovered early the next morning by an aircraft from the carrier Hōshō, ^{Sony VAIO VGN-SR165E/P Battery}

prompting hopes that the Hiryu could be saved and perhaps even towed back to Japan. However, soon after being spotted, Hiryū sank. Rear Admiral Yamaguchi chose to go down with his ship, costing Japan perhaps her best carrier commander.^{Sony VAIO VGN-SR165E/S Battery}

As darkness fell, both sides took stock and made tentative plans for continuing the action. Admiral Fletcher, obliged to abandon the derelict Yorktown and feeling he could not adequately command from a cruiser, ceded operational command to Spruance.^{Sony VAIO VGN-SR190EBJ Battery}

Spruance knew the United States had won a great victory, but was still unsure of what Japanese forces remained and was determined to safeguard both Midway and his carriers. To aid his aviators, who had launched at extreme range, he had continued to close with Nagumo during the day, and persisted as night fell. ^{Sony VAIO VGN-SR190EBQ Battery}

This late afternoon strike narrowly missed detecting Yamamoto's main body and failed to score hits on a straggling Japanese destroyer. The strike planes returned to the carriers after nightfall, prompting Spruance to order Enterprise and Hornet to turn on their lights to aid the landings. ^{Sony VAIO VGN-SR190EEJ/C Battery}

 Finally, fearing a possible night encounter with Japanese surface forces,^[98] Spruance changed course and withdrew to the east, turning back west towards the enemy at midnight.^[99] For his part, Yamamoto initially decided to continue the engagement and sent his remaining surface forces searching eastward for the American carriers. ^{Sony VAIO VGN-SR190NAB Battery}

Simultaneously, a cruiser raiding force was detached to bombard the island. The Japanese surface forces failed to make contact with the Americans due to Spruance's decision to briefly withdraw eastward, and Yamamoto ordered a general retirement to the west. ^{Sony VAIO VGN-SR190NBB Battery}

At 02:15 on the night of 5/6 June, Commander John Murphy's Tambor, lying some 90 nmi (100 mi; 170 km) west of Midway, made the second of the Submarine Force's two major contributions to the battle's outcome. Sighting several ships, neither Murphy or his exec, ^{Sony VAIO VGN-SR190NDB Battery}

Ray Spruance, Jr., could identify them and, fearing they might be friendly, Murphy held fire. He did, however, report the ships to Admiral Robert English, Commander, Submarine Force, Pacific Fleet (COMSUBPAC), but neglected to confirm their course. This report was passed on by English to Nimitz, who then sent it to Spruance. ^{Sony VAIO VGN-SR190NEB Battery}

Unaware of the exact location of Yamamoto's "Main Body" (a persistent problem since PBYs had first sighted the Japanese), Spruance assumed this sighting was of the invasion force and moved to block it while staying some 100 nmi (120 mi; 190 km) northeast of Midway.^{[102] Sony VAIO VGN-SR190NGB Battery}

The ships sighted by Tambor were the four cruisers and two destroyers Yamamoto had sent to bombard Midway. At 02:55, these ships received Yamamoto's order to retire and changed course to comply.^[102] At about the same time as the course change, ^{Sony VAIO VGN-SR190PAB Battery}

Tambor was sighted and, during maneuvers designed to avoid a submarine attack, Mogami and Mikuma collided, inflicting serious damage to Mogami's bow: although the less severely damaged Mikuma slowed to 12 knots to keep pace withMogami.^{[103] Sony VAIO VGN-SR190PCB Battery}

This was the most damage any of the 18^[104] submarines deployed for the battle achieved. Only at 04:12 did the sky brighten enough for Murphy to be certain the ships were Japanese, by which time staying surfaced was a hazard, and he dived to approach for an attack. ^{Sony VAIO VGN-SR190PFB Battery}

This was unsuccessful, and at around 06:00, he finally reported two westbound Mogami-class cruisers.^[105]

Over the following two days, first Midway and then Spruance's carriers launched several strikes against the stragglers. ^{Sony VAIO VGN-SR19VN Battery}

 Mikuma was eventually sunk by Dauntlesses,^[106] while Mogami survived further severe damage to return home for repairs. The destroyers Arashio and Asashio were also bombed and strafed during the last of these attacks.^[107] Captain Richard E. Fleming, a U.S. Marine Corps aviator, was posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor for his attack onMikuma.^{[108] Sony VAIO VGN-SR19VN Battery}

Meanwhile, salvage efforts on Yorktown were encouraging, and she was taken in tow by USS Vireo. In the late afternoon of 6 June, however, Yorktown was struck by two torpedoes from I-168. There were few casualties, since most of the crew had already been evacuated, ^{Sony VAIO VGN-SR19VRN Battery}

but a third torpedo from this salvo struck and sank the destroyer USS Hammann, which had been providing auxiliary power to Yorktown. Hammann broke in two with the loss of 80 lives, most due to her own depth charges exploding. Yorktown lingered until just after 05:00 on 7 June.^{[109] Sony VAIO VGN-SR19XN Battery}

Japanese casualties

By the time the battle ended, 3,057 Japanese had died. Casualties aboard the four carriers were: Akagi: 267; Kaga: 811;Hiryu: 392; Soryu: 711; a total of 2,181.^[110] The heavy cruisers Mikuma (sunk; 700 casualties) and Mogami (badly damaged; 92) accounted for another 792 deaths.^{[111] Sony VAIO VGN-SR19XN Battery}

In addition, the destroyers Arashio (bombed; 35) and Asashio (strafed by aircraft; 21) both were damaged during the air attacks which sank Mikuma and caused further damage to Mogami. Floatplanes were lost from the cruisers Chikuma (3) and Tone(2).^{Sony VAIO VGN-SR210J/S Battery}

Dead aboard the destroyers Tanikaze (11), Arashi (1), Kazagumo (1) and the fleet oiler Akebono Maru (10) made up the remaining 23 casualties.^{[nb 9]}

Aftermath

After winning a clear victory, and as pursuit became too hazardous near Wake,^[112] American forces retired. ^{Sony VAIO VGN-SR21M/S Battery}

Historian Samuel E. Morison wrote in 1949 that Spruance was subjected to much criticism for not pursuing the retreating Japanese, and allowing the retreating Japanese surface fleet to escape.^[113] Clay Blair argued in 1975 that had Spruance pressed on, ^{Sony VAIO VGN-SR21RM/H Battery}

he would have been unable to launch his aircraft after nightfall, and his cruiser escorts would have been overwhelmed by Yamamoto's larger and more powerful surface units, including Yamato.^[112]

On 10 June, the Imperial Japanese Navy conveyed to the military liaison conference an incomplete picture of the results of the battle. ^{Sony VAIO VGN-SR21RM/S Battery}

Chūichi Nagumo's detailed battle report was submitted to the high command 15 June. It was intended only for the highest echelons in the Japanese Navy and government, and was guarded closely throughout the war. In it, one of the more striking revelations is the comment on the Mobile Force Commander's (Nagumo's) estimates: ^{Sony VAIO VGN-SR220J/B Battery}

"The enemy is not aware of our plans (we were not discovered till early in the morning of the 5th at the earliest)."^[114] The Japanese public were kept in the dark as to the extent of the defeat, as was much of the military command structure. Japanese news announced a great victory. ^{Sony VAIO VGN-SR220J/H Battery}

Only Emperor Hirohito and the highest Navy command personnel were accurately informed of the carrier and pilot losses. Subsequently, Army planners continued to believe, for at least a short time, that the fleet was in good condition.^{[115] Sony VAIO VGN-SR240J/B Battery}

On the return of the Japanese fleet to Hashirajima on 14 June the wounded were immediately transferred to naval hospitals; most were classified as "secret patients", placed in isolation wards and quarantined from other patients and their own families to prevent the secret of this major defeat from getting out to the general populace.^{[116] Sony VAIO VGN-SR240N/B Battery}

The remaining officers and men were quickly dispersed to other units of the fleet and, with no chance to see family or friends, were shipped to units in the South Pacific where the majority died.^[117] By contrast none of the flag officers or staff of the Combined Fleet were penalized, with Nagumo later being placed in command of the rebuilt carrier force.^{[118] Sony VAIO VGN-SR290JTH Battery}

The Japanese Navy did learn some lessons from Midway: new procedures were adopted whereby more aircraft were refueled and re-armed on the flight deck, rather than in the hangars, and the practice of draining all unused fuel lines was adopted. ^{Sony VAIO VGN-SR290JTJ Battery}

The new carriers being built were redesigned to incorporate only two flight deck elevators and new firefighting equipment. More carrier crew members were trained in damage-control and firefighting techniques, although the losses later in the war of Shōkaku, Hiyō and Taihō showed that there were still problems in this area.^{[119] Sony VAIO VGN-SR290JTQ Battery}

Replacement pilots went through an abbreviated training regimen, meeting the short-term needs of the fleet; however, this led to a decline in the quality of training. These inexperienced pilots were fed into front-line units, Sony VAIO VGN-NW11S/S Battery

while the veterans who remained after Midway and the Solomons campaign were forced to share an increased workload in increasingly desperate conditions, with few being given a chance to rest in rear areas or in the home islands. As a result, Japanese naval air groups progressively declined in overall quality during the war.^[120] Sony VAIO VGN-NW11S/T Battery

Allegations of war crimes

Three U.S. airmen, Ensign Wesley Osmus (pilot, Yorktown), Ensign Frank O'Flaherty (pilot, Enterprise) and Aviation Machinist's Mate B. F. (or B. P.) Bruno Gaido (radioman-gunner of O'Flaherty's SBD) were captured by the Japanese during the battle. Sony VAIO VGN-NW11Z/S Battery

Osmus was held on the Arashi, with O'Flaherty and Gaido on the cruiserNagara (or destroyer Makigumo, sources vary), and it is alleged they were later killed.^[121] The report filed by Admiral Nagumo states of Ensign Osmus, "He died on 6 June and was buried at sea". Sony VAIO VGN-NW11Z/T Battery

Nagumo recorded obtaining seven items of information, including the enemy's strength, but did not mention the death of O'Flaherty or Gaido.^[122] O'Flaherty and Gaido were tied to five-gallon kerosene cans filled with water and dumped overboard at an unknown date several days or more after the battle.^[123] Sony VAIO VGN-NW21EF/S Battery

Impact

The battle has often been called "the turning point of the Pacific".^[124] However, the Japanese continued to try to advance in the South Pacific, and it was many more months before the U.S. moved from a state of naval parity to one of increasingly clear supremacy.Sony VAIO VGN-NW21JF Battery

Thus, although Midway was the Allies' first major victory against the Japanese, it did not change the course of the war in the same sense as Salamis; instead, it was the cumulative attrition of Midway, combined with that of the inconclusive Coral Sea battle, which reduced Japan's ability to undertake major offensives. Sony VAIO VGN-NW21MF Battery

Midway also paved the way for the landings onGuadalcanal and the prolonged attrition of the Solomon Islands campaign, which allowed the Allies to take the strategic initiative and swing to the offensive for the rest of the Pacific War.^[126] But most importantly of all, Midway bought the United States valuable time until the new Essex-class fleet carriers became available at the end of the year. Sony VAIO VGN-NW21MF/W Battery

The loss of the Akagi, Kaga, Soryu and Hiryu reduced the number of operational carriers that Japan could use against the US which still had the Enterprise, Hornet, Wasp and Saratoga.

The battle showed the worth of pre-war naval cryptologic training and efforts. Sony VAIO VGN-NW21ZF Battery

These efforts continued and were expanded throughout the war in both the Pacific and Atlantic theaters. Successes were numerous and significant. For instance, the shooting down of Admiral Yamamoto's airplane was possible only because of navy cryptanalysis. Sony VAIO VGN-NW31EF/W Battery

Some authors have stated heavy losses in carriers and veteran aircrews at Midway permanently weakened the Imperial Japanese Navy.^[128] Parshall and Tully, however, have stated that the losses in veteran aircrew, while heavy (110, just under 25% of the aircrew embarked on the four carriers), Sony VAIO VGN-NW31JF Battery

 were not crippling to the Japanese naval air-corps as a whole: the Japanese navy had some 2,000 carrier-qualified aircrew at the start of the Pacific war.^[130] A few months after Midway, the JNAF sustained similar casualty rates at both the Battle of the Eastern Solomons and Battle of Santa Cruz, and it was these battles, Sony VAIO VGN-NW320F/B Battery

combined with the constant attrition of veterans during the Solomons campaign, which were the catalyst for the sharp downward spiral in operational capability.^[131] However, the loss of four large fleet carriers, and over 40% of the carriers' highly trained aircraft mechanics and technicians, Sony VAIO VGN-NW320F/TC Battery

plus the essential flight-deck crews and armorers, and the loss of organizational knowledge embodied by such highly trained crew, were heavy blows to the Japanese carrier fleet.^{[131][nb 10]} The loss of the carriers meant that only Shōkaku and Zuikaku were left for offensive actions. Sony VAIO VGN-NW35E Battery

Of Japan's other carriers, Taihō was the only Fleet carrier worth teaming withShōkaku and Zuikaku, while Ryūjō, Junyo, and Hiyō, were second-rate ships of comparatively limited effectiveness.^[132] By the time of the Battle of the Philippine Sea, while the Japanese had somewhat rebuilt their carrier forces, Sony VAIO VGN-NW380F/S Battery

the planes were largely flown by inexperienced pilots so the carrier fleet was not as potent a striking force as it was before Midway. ^{[nb 11]}

In the time it took Japan to build three carriers, the U.S. Navy commissioned more than two dozen fleet and light fleet carriers, and numerous escort carriers. Sony VAIO VGN-NW380F/T Battery

By 1942, the United States was already three years into a shipbuilding program, mandated by the Second Vinson Act, intended to make the navy larger than Japan's.The greater part of USN aviators survived the Battle of Midway and subsequent battles of 1942, and combined with growing pilot training programs, Sony VAIO VGN-NW50JB Battery

the US was able to develop a large number of skilled pilots to complement its material advantages in ships and planes.

Discovery of sunken vessels

Because of the extreme depth of the ocean in the area of the battle (more than 17,000 ft (5,200 m)), Sony VAIO VGN-NW51FB/N Battery

researching the battlefield has presented extraordinary difficulties. However, on 19 May 1998, Robert Ballard and a team of scientists and Midway veterans from both sides located and photographed (artist's rendering) Yorktown. The ship was remarkably intact for a vessel that sank in 1942; Sony VAIO VGN-NW51FB/W Battery

much of the original equipment and even the original paint scheme were still visible.^[135]

Ballard's subsequent search for the Japanese carriers was ultimately unsuccessful. In September 1999, a joint expedition between Nauticos Corp. and the U.S. Naval Oceanographic Office searched for the Japanese aircraft carriers. Sony VAIO VGN-NW70JB Battery

Using advanced renavigation techniques in conjunction with the ship's log of the submarine USS Nautilus, the expedition located a large piece of wreckage, subsequently identified as having come from the upper hangar deck of Kaga.^[136] The main wreck, however, has yet to be located. Sony VAIO VGN-NW71FB/N Battery

Remembrances

Chicago Municipal Airport, important to the war efforts in World War II, was renamed Chicago Midway International Airport (or simply Midway Airport) in 1949 in honor of the battle. Sony VAIO VGN-NW71FB/W Battery

Waldron Field, an outlying training landing strip, at Corpus Christi NAS as well Waldron Road leading to the strip, was named in honor of the commander of USS Hornet's Torpedo Squadron 8. Yorktown Blvd leading away from the strip was named for the U.S. carrier sunk in the battle. Sony VAIO VGN-NW91FS Battery

An escort carrier, USS Midway (CVE-63) was commissioned on 17 August 1943. She was renamed St. Lo on 10 October 1944 to clear the name Midway for a large fleet aircraft carrier, USS Midway (CV-41), commissioned on 10 September 1945 (eight days after the Japanese surrender). Sony VAIO VGN-NW91GS Battery

The latter ship is now docked in San Diego, California and is in use as the USS Midway Museum.

On September 13, 2000, Secretary of the Interior Bruce Babbitt designated the lands and waters of Midway Atoll National Wildlife Refuge as the Battle of Midway National Memorial. Sony VAIO VGN-NW91VS Battery

The First Bombardment of Midway, or the First Bombardment of Sand Island, or Attack on Midway, was a small land and sea engagement of World War II. It occurred on the very first day of the Pacific War, 7 December 1941, not long after the major Battle of Pearl Harbor. Sony VAIO VGN-NS140E/W Battery

Two Imperial Japanese destroyers bombarded Sand Island ofMidway Atoll. The Japanese successfully damaged the U.S. Marine base before being engaged by American shore batteries and forced to flee.

Before the beginning of the Pacific War, American marines were stationed on Midway and had established a small base with the ability to service land, sea and air forces. Sony VAIO VGN-NS190J/L Battery

The marines also constructed all of the bases'fortifications, civilian contractors constructed the buildings. They used 5 inch (130 mm) guns, built in 1916, and 3 inch (76 mm) guns of 1921 to defend the islands. Fortifications dating back to 1905 were also manned. Sony VAIO VGN-NS190J/S Battery

At this time, the U.S. had been focused on the war against Nazi Germany, and once the war began, generally all of the new military equipment produced was sent to the African and European theaters of operations. The newest military equipment sent to Europe and Africa ranged from warships to small arms, Sony VAIO VGN-NS190J/W Battery

leaving only the relics for the U.S. Marines in the Pacific. Not only were Pearl Harbor, Wake Island and the Philippines attacked in the opening phase of the conflict, but Midway was shelled as well by two Japanese destroyers, Ushio and Sazanami. Sony VAIO VGN-NS235J/L Battery

Bombardment

The two destroyers were part of the Japanese fleet that had just attacked Pearl Harbor. Overall, the unit was under the command of Captain Ohishi Kaname, though Lieutenant Commander Yoshitake Uesugi skippered Ushio and Lieutenant Commander Hiroshi Uwa skippered the other destroyer. Sony VAIO VGN-NS235J/P Battery

The engagement began at 09:31 and lasted 54 minutes. The American command, communications and power plant building was damaged by a 5 in (130 mm) shell, which deflected off an adjacent laundromat. Battery "H" commander—First Lieutenant George H. Cannon—was hit by shrapnel in the pelvis while inside the command building. Sony VAIO VGN-NS235J/S Battery

By this time the communications were down from enemy fire so Lieutenant Cannon refused medical attention until he was assured that the communications were restored to the post and until the wounded marines around him were evacuated. Sony VAIO VGN-NS235J/W Battery

By the time Cannon received aid from a medic, it was too late and he perished due to blood loss. For Cannon's "distinguished conduct in the line of his profession, extraordinary courage, and disregard of his own condition", he received the first Medal of Honor issued to a U.S. Marine for actions in the Second World War. Sony VAIO VGN-NS240E/L Battery

A street on Sand Island was named after Cannon and continues to be known by that name, a 1943 destroyer escort—USS Cannon (DE-99)—was also named after him. Six Japanese rounds struck and entered the main PBY Catalina hangar and destroyed a PBY inside, the civilians inside survived without injury. Sony VAIO VGN-NS290J/L Battery

The hospital was hit also and burned. All of the damaged buildings were quickly rebuilt by the civilian contractors.

Shell craters littered the ground all around the buildings of Sand Island. The Marines did not use aircraft against the attacking Japanese. Sony VAIO VGN-NS290J/S Battery

They did use their artillery batteries and managed to damage one of the destroyers when they came within range. The other destroyer quickly laid a smokescreen and the two vessels retired. Four men died on Midway that morning, other marines had slight injuries. Sony VAIO VGN-NS50B/L Battery

Several United States Navy sailors were on the island during the attack, two of them were killed, Ensign Donald J. Kraker and Fireman Second Class Ralph E. Tuttle. Two marines were killed, Lieutenant Cannon and Private First Class Elmer R. Morrell. Japanese casualties are unknown, Ushio fired 109 rounds and Sazanami fired 193. Sony VAIO VGN-NS50B/W Battery

In February 1942 a Japanese submarine bombarded the atoll and a few months later, the great naval Battle of Midway was won, which is regarded as the most important naval battle of the war and the turning point in the Pacific theatre of operations. Sony VAIO VGN-NS51B/L Battery

The Marines by that time had received reinforcements, both personnel and some newer and bigger guns, all of which were used by the Marine garrison when they engaged attacking Japanese A6M2 Zeros in June 1942. The marines also fought a deadly dog fight ending with heavy casualties for American forces and a loss of seven Japanese aircraft. Sony VAIO VGN-NS51B/P Battery

The Aleutian Islands Campaign was a struggle over the Aleutian Islands, part of the Alaska Territory, in thePacific campaign of World War II starting on 3 June 1942. A small Japanese force occupied the islands of Attu andKiska, Sony VAIO VGN-NS51B/W Battery

but the remoteness of the islands and the difficulties of weather and terrain meant that it took nearly a year for a far larger U.S. force to eject them. The islands' strategic value was their ability to control PacificGreat Circle routes. This control of the Pacific transportation routes is why U.S. Sony VAIO VGN-NS52JB/L Battery

General Billy Mitchell stated to the U.S. Congress in 1935, "I believe that in the future, whoever holds Alaska will hold the world. I think it is the most important strategic place in the world." The Japanese reasoned that control of the Aleutians would prevent a possible U.S. attack across the Northern Pacific. Sony VAIO VGN-NS52JB/P Battery

Similarly, the U.S. feared that the islands would be used as bases from which to launch aerial assaults against the West Coast.

The battle is known as the "Forgotten Battle", due to being overshadowed by the simultaneous Guadalcanal Campaign. Sony VAIO VGN-NS52JB/W Battery

In the past, most western military historians believed it was a diversionary or feint attack during the Battle of Midway meant to draw out the U.S. Pacific Fleet from Pearl Harbor, and was in fact launched simultaneously under the same overall commander, Isoroku Yamamoto. Sony VAIO VGN-NS70B/W Battery

However, historians Jonathan Parshall and Anthony Tully have made an argument against this interpretation, stating that the Japanese invaded the Aleutians to protect the northern flank of their empire and did not intend it as a diversion. Sony VAIO VGN-NS71B/W Battery

Japanese attack

Before Japan entered World War II, its navy had gathered extensive information about the Aleutians, but it had no up-to-date information regarding military developments on the islands. Sony VAIO VGN-NS72JB/W Battery

Admiral Yamamoto provided the JapaneseNorthern Area Fleet, commanded by Vice-Admiral Boshiro Hosogaya, with a force of two small aircraft carriers, five cruisers, twelve destroyers, six submarines, and four troop transports, along with supporting auxiliary ships. Sony VAIO VGN-NS90HS Battery

With that force, Hosogaya was first to launch an air attack against Dutch Harbor, then follow with an amphibious attack upon the island of Adak, 480 miles to the west. Hosogaya was instructed to destroy whatever American forces and facilities were found on Adak—the Japanese did not know the island was undefended. Sony VAIO VGN-NS92JS Battery

Hosogaya's troops were to return to their ships and become a reserve for two additional landings: the first on Kiska, 240 miles west of Adak, the other on the Aleutian's westernmost island, Attu, 180 miles west from Kiska. Sony VAIO VGN-NS92XS Battery

Because United States Naval intelligence had broken the Japanese naval cypher code, Admiral Nimitz had learned by May 21, of Yamamoto's plans, including the Aleutian diversion, the strength of both Yamamoto's and Hosogaya's fleets, and that Hosogaya would open the fight on 1 June or shortly thereafter. Sony VAIO VGN-NS21M/P Battery

As of June 1, 1942, United States military strength in Alaska stood at 45,000 men, with about 13,000 at Cold Bay (Fort Randall) on the tip of the Alaskan Peninsula and at two Aleutian bases: the naval facility at Dutch Harbor on Unalaska Island, 200 miles west of Cold Bay, Sony VAIO VGN-NS21M/W Battery

and the recently built Fort Glenn Army Airfield 70 miles west of the naval station on Umnak Island. Army strength, less air force personnel, at those three bases totaled no more than 2,300, composed mainly of infantry, field and antiaircraft artillery troops,Sony VAIO VGN-NS21S/S Battery

and a large construction engineer contingent, which had used in the construction of bases. The Army Air Force's Eleventh Air Forceconsisted of 10 B-17 Flying Fortress heavy bombers and 34 B-18 Bolo medium bombers at Elmendorf Airfield, and 95 P-40 Warhawk fighters divided between Fort Randall AAF at Cold Bay and Fort Glenn AAF on Umnak. Sony VAIO VGN-NS21S/W Battery

The naval commander was Rear Admiral Robert A. Theobald, commanding Task Force 8 afloat, who as Commander North Pacific Force (ComNorPac) reported to Admiral Nimitz in Hawaii. Task Force 8 consisted of five cruisers, thirteen destroyers, three tankers, six submarines, as well as naval aviation elements of Fleet Air Wing Four.^[6] Sony VAIO VGN-NS21Z/S Battery

When the first inklings of a possible Japanese attack on the Aleutians were known, the Eleventh Air Force was ordered to send out reconnaissance aircraft to locate the Japanese fleet reported heading toward Dutch Harbor and attack it with bombers, concentrating on sinking Hosogaya's 2 aircraft carriers. Sony VAIO VGN-NS31M/P Battery

Once the enemy planes were removed, Naval Task Force 8 would engage the enemy fleet and destroy it. On the afternoon of 2 June a naval patrol plane spotted the approaching Japanese fleet, reporting its location as 800 miles southwest of Dutch Harbor. Eleventh Air Force was placed on full alert. Sony VAIO VGN-NS31M/W Battery

Shortly thereafter bad weather set in, and no further sightings of the fleet were made that day.

Attack on Dutch Harbor

According to Japanese intelligence, the nearest field for land-based American aircraft was at Fort Morrow AAF on Kodiak, Sony VAIO VGN-NS31S/S Battery

more than 600 miles away, and Dutch Harbor was a sitting duck for the strong Japanese fleet, carrying out a coordinated operation with a fleet that was to capture Midway Island.

Making use of weather cover, the Japanese first raided the Naval Base at Dutch Harbor on June 3, 1942. Sony VAIO VGN-NS31Z/P Battery

The striking force was composed of Nakajima B5N2 "Kate" torpedo bombers from the carriers Junyō and Ryūjō. However, only half of the striking force reached their objective.^[7] The rest either became lost in the fog and darkness and crashed into the sea or returned to their carriers. Sony VAIO VGN-NS31Z/S Battery

Seventeen Japanese planes found the naval base, the first arriving at 05:45. As the Japanese pilots looked for targets to engage, they came under intense antiaircraft fire and soon found themselves confronted by Eleventh Air Force fighters sent from Fort Glenn Army Air Field on Umnak. Sony VAIO VGN-NS31Z/W Battery

Startled by the American response, the Japanese quickly released their bombs, made a cursory strafing run, and left to return to their carriers. As a result, they did little damage to the base.

On June 4 the Japanese returned to Dutch Harbor. Sony VAIO VGN-NS38M/P Battery

This time the pilots were better organized and better prepared. When the attack finally ended that afternoon, the oil storage tanks were left burning, hospital was partly demolished, and a beached barracks ship was damaged. Although American pilots finally located the Japanese carriers, attempts to sink them proved fruitless. Sony VAIO VGN-NS38M/W Battery

Bad weather again set in, and all contact with the enemy fleet was lost. Foul weather forced the cancellation of Japanese plans to invade Adak with 1200 men.^[8]

The Japanese invasions of Kiska on June 6, and Attu on June 7 initially met little resistance from the local Aleuts. Sony VAIO VGN-NS130E/L Battery

Much of the native population of the islands had been forcibly evacuated by the US military before the invasion and interned in camps in the Alaska Panhandle.

In August 1942, the U.S. Army established an air base on Adak Island and began bombing Japanese positions on Kiska. Sony VAIO VGN-NS130E/S Battery

U.S. Navysubmarines and surface ships also began patrolling the area. Kiska Harbor was the main base for Japanese ships in the campaign and several were sunk there, some by warships but mostly in air raids. On 5 July, Lieutenant Commander Howard Gilmore — commanding thesubmarine Growler — attacked three Japanese destroyers off KiskaSony VAIO VGN-NS130E/W Battery

. He sank and heavily damaged the others, killing or wounding 200 Japanese sailors. Ten days later, the Grunion was attacked by three Japanese submarine chasers in Kiska Harbor, but two of the patrol craft were sunk and one other damaged. Sony VAIO VGN-NS140E/L Battery

On 12 May 1943, the Japanese submarine I-31 was sunk in a surface action with the destroyer Edwards 5 mi (4.3 nmi; 8.0 km) northeast of Chichagof Harbor.

Komandorski Islands

A cruiser and destroyer force under Rear Admiral Charles "Soc" McMorris was assigned to eliminate the Japanese supply convoys.Sony VAIO VGN-NS140E/S Battery

They met the Japanese fleet in the naval Battle of the Komandorski Islands in March 1943. One American cruiser and two destroyers were damaged, with seven U.S. sailors killed. Two Japanese cruisers were damaged, with 14 men killed and 26 wounded. Sony VAIO VGN-NS10E/S Battery

Japan thereafter abandoned all attempts to resupply the Aleutian garrisons by surface vessels, and only submarines would be used.

Attu Island

On 11 May 1943, the operation to recapture Attu began. Included with the invasion force were scouts recruited from Alaska, nicknamed Castner's Cutthroats. Sony VAIO VGN-NS10J/S Battery

A shortage of landing craft, unsuitable beaches, and equipment that failed to operate in the appalling weather made it difficult to bring any force against the Japanese. Soldiers suffered from frostbite because essential supplies could not be landed, or could not be moved to where needed because vehicles would not work on the tundra. Sony VAIO VGN-NS10L/S Battery

Led by Colonel Yasuyo Yamasaki, the Japanese defenders did not contest the landings, instead digging in on high ground far from the shore. This resulted in fierce combat, with a total of 3,929 U.S. casualties; 580 men were killed, 1,148 were wounded, and another 1,200 had severe cold injuries. Sony VAIO VGN-NS110E/L Battery

In addition, 614 died of disease, and 318 from miscellaneous causes, mainly Japanese booby traps or friendly fire.

On 29 May, the last of the Japanese forces attacked without warning near Massacre Bay in one of the largest banzai charges of the Pacific campaign. Sony VAIO VGN-NS110E/S Battery

Led by Colonel Yamasaki, the attack penetrated U.S. lines so deeply that it encountered rear-echelon units of the American force. After furious, brutal, often hand-to-hand combat, the Japanese force was virtually exterminated. Only 28 had been willing to be taken prisoner, none of them officers. Sony VAIO VGN-NS110E/W Battery

American burial teams counted 2,351 Japanese dead, but it was thought that hundreds more bodies had been buried by bombardments during the battle.

Kiska Island

On 15 August 1943, an invasion force of 34,426 Allied troops landed on Kiska. Sony VAIO VGN-NS115N/S Battery

Castner's Cutthroats were part of the force, but the invasion consisted mainly of units from the U.S. 7th Infantry Division. The force also included about 5,300 Canadians, mostly from the 13th Canadian Infantry Brigade of the 6th Canadian Infantry Division, but included the Canadian component of the 1st Special Service Force, also known as the "Devil′s Brigade".Sony VAIO VGN-NS11ER/S Battery

The invaders landed to find the island abandoned. Under the cover of fog, the Japanese had successfully removed their troops on 28 July. The Army Air Force had bombed abandoned positions for almost three weeks without suspecting the Japanese were no longer there. Sony VAIO VGN-NS11E/S Battery

The day before the withdrawal, the U.S. Navy fought an inconclusive and possibly meaningless Battle of the Pips 80 mi (70 nmi; 130 km) to the west.

The Japanese may have been gone, but Allied casualties on Kiska nevertheless numbered 313. Sony VAIO VGN-NS11J/S Battery

All were the result of friendly fire, booby traps, disease, or frostbite. As with Attu, Kiska offered an extremely hostile environment.

Aftermath

Although plans were drawn up for attacking northern Japan, they were not executed. Sony VAIO VGN-NS11L/S Battery

Over 1,500 sorties were flown against the Kuriles before the end of the war, including the Japanese base of Paramushiro, diverting 500 Japanese planes and 41,000 ground troops.

The battle also marked the first time Canadian conscripts were sent to a combat zone in World War II. Sony VAIO VGN-NS11MR/S Battery

The government had pledged not to send draftees "overseas", which it defined as being outside North America. The Aleutians were considered to be North American soil, thus enabling the Canadian government to deploy conscripts without breaking its pledge.Sony VAIO VGN-NS11M/S Battery

There were cases of desertion before the brigade sailed for the Aleutians. In late 1944, the government changed its policy on draftees and sent 16,000 conscripts to Europe to take part in the fighting.^[9]

The battle also marked the first combat deployment of the 1st Special Service Force, though they also did not see any action. Sony VAIO VGN-NS11SR/S Battery

The Americans recovered the Akutan Zero, an almost intact Mitsubishi A6M2 Zero fighter. This enabled the Americans to test fly the Zero and contributed to improved fighter tactics later in the war.

Killed in action

During the campaign, two cemeteries were established on Attu to bury those killed in action: Sony VAIO VGN-NS11S/S Battery

Little Fall Cemetery, located at the foot of Gilbert Ridge, and Holtz Bay Cemetery, which held the graves of Northern Landing Forces. After the war, the frozen tundra began to take back the cemeteries, so in 1946 all American remains were relocated as directed by the soldier′s family or to Fort Richardson near Anchorage, Alaska. Sony VAIO VGN-NS11ZR/S Battery

On May 30, 1946, a Memorial Day address was given by Captain Adair with aFiring Squad Salute and the playing of Taps. The Decoration of Graves was performed by Chaplains Meaney and Insko.^[10]

Veterans

The 2006 documentary film Red White Black & Blue features two veterans of the Attu Island campaign, Bill Jones and Andy Petrus. Sony VAIO VGN-NS11Z/S Battery

It is directed by Tom Putnam and debuted at the 2006 Locarno International Film Festival in Locarno, Switzerland on August 4, 2006.

Dashiell Hammett spent most of World War II as an Army sergeant in the Aleutian Islands, where he edited an Army newspaper.Sony VAIO VGN-NS12M/S Battery

He came out of the war suffering from emphysema. As a corporal in 1943, he co-authored The Battle of the Aleutians with Cpl. Robert Colodny under the direction of Infantry Intelligence Officer Major Henry W. Hall. Sony VAIO VGN-NS12M/W Battery,Sony VAIO VGN-NS12S/S Battery, Sony VAIO VGN-NR72B Battery