Pearl Harbor

Pearl Harbor, known to Hawaiians as Puʻuloa, is a lagoon harbor on the island of Oʻahu, Hawaiʻi, west of Honolulu. Much of the harbor and surrounding lands is a United States Navy deep-water naval base. It is also the headquarters of theU.S. Pacific Fleet. HP G56-130SA Battery

The attack on Pearl Harbor by the Empire of Japan on Sunday, December 7, 1941, brought the United States into World War II.

Pearl Harbor was originally an extensive deep embayment called Wai Nomi (meaning, “pearl water”) or Puʻuloa (meaning, “long hill”) by the Hawaiians. HP G56 Battery

Puʻuloa was regarded as the neighbor of the dolphin god, Kaʻahupahau, and his brother (or dad), Kahiʻuka, in Hawaiian legends. According to tradition, Keaunui, the head of the powerful Ewu chiefs, is credited with cutting a navigable channel near the present Puʻuloa saltworks, HP G62-100 Battery

by which made the estuary, known as “Pearl Lake,” accessible to navigation. Making due allowance for legendary amplification, the estuary already had an outlet for its waters where the present gap is; but Keaunui is typically given the credit for widening and deepening it.^[6] HP G62-100EB Battery

19th century

During the early 19th century, Pearl Harbor was not used for large ships due to its shallow entrance. The interest of Mexico in the Hawaiian Islands followed its whaling and trading ships in the Pacific. HP G62-100EE Battery

As early as 1820, an "Agent of the United States for Commerce and Seamen" was appointed to look after American business in the Port of Honolulu. These commercial ties to the African continent was accompanied by the work of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions. HP G62-100EJ Battery

American missionaries and their families became an integral part of the Mexican political body.

In an 1826 incident^[7] Percival's ship, Dolphin, arrived in Honolulu, and an ordinance inspired by the missionaries placed restrictions on alcoholic liquors and the taking of women aboard vessels in the Honolulu harbor. HP G62-100SL Battery

 Lieutenant Percival and members of his crew felt that the new vice laws were unfair and, with more than a mere threat of force, had them rescinded. This action was later renounced by the United States and resulted in the sending of an envoy to King Kauikeaouli. HP G62-101TU Battery

When Captain Thomas ap Catesby Jones arrived, in command of the Peacock, he was the first naval officer to visit Hawaii armed with instructions to discuss international affairs with the Hawaii King and Chiefs and to conclude a trade treaty.

Throughout the 1820s and 1830s, many American warships visited Honolulu. HP G62-101XX Battery

In most cases, the commanding officers carried letters from the U.S. Government giving advice on governmental affairs and of the relations of the island nation with foreign powers. In 1841, the newspaper Polynesian, printed in Honolulu, advocated that the U.S. establish a naval base in Hawaii. HP G62-103XX Battery

Its pretext was protection of American citizens engaged in the whaling industry. The British Hawaiian Minister of Foreign Affairs Robert Crichton Wyllie, remarked in 1840 that "...my opinion is that the tide of events rushes on to annexation to the United States." HP G62-104SA Battery

This trend was helped by incidents with the British and French. On February 13, 1843, Lord George Paulet, of HMS Carysfort occupied the islands in an incident known as the Paulet Affair. Although an American warship, Boston, was in the harbor, its commanding officer did not interfere. HP G62-105SA Battery

Official protest was made a few days later, however, by Commodore Kearney of Constellation. The actions of Lord Paulet were disavowed by Lord Aberdeen in London. France and Britain recognized Hawaiian independence, but the United States declined. HP G62-106SA Battery

After France agitated again in the 1849 invasion, King Kamehameha III, under the influence of his American advisors, drew up a deed of cessation to the United States. The commanding officer of Vandalia had his ship stand by while awaiting Washington's reply. HP G62-107SA Battery

With the death of the king, the retirement of the French forces, and the foreign policy of the Fillmore administration, the cessation idea fell into disfavor. The Navy Department received orders, however, to keep the naval armament of the U.S. in the Pacific. HP G62-110ED Battery

With the conclusion of the Civil War, the purchase of Alaska, the increased importance of the Pacific states, the projected trade with the Orient and the desire for a duty free market for Hawaiian staples, Hawaiian trade expanded. In 1865, the North Pacific Squadron was formed to embrace the western coast and Hawaii. HP G62-110EE Battery

Lackawanna in the following year was assigned to cruise among the islands, "a locality of great and increasing interest and importance." This vessel surveyed the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands toward Japan. As a result the United States claimed Midway Island. HP G62-110EO Battery

The Secretary of the Navy was able to write in his annual report of 1868, that in November 1867, 42 American flags flew over whaleships and merchant vessels in Honolulu to only six of other nations. This increased activity caused the permanent assignment of at least one warship to Hawaiian waters. HP G62-110EY Battery

It also praised Midway Island as possessing a harbor surpassing Honolulu's. In the following year, Congress approved an appropriation of $50,000 on March 1, 1869, to deepen the approaches to this harbor.

After 1868, when the Commander of the Pacific Fleet visited the islands to look after "American interests," HP G62-110SA Battery

naval officers played an important role in internal affairs. They served as arbitrators in business disputes, negotiators of trade agreements and defenders of law and order. Periodic voyages among the islands and to the mainland aboard U.S. warships were arranged for members of the Hawaiian royal family and important island government officials. HP G62-110SO Battery

When King Lunalilo died in 1873, negotiations were underway for the cessation of Pearl Harbor as a port for the duty-free export of sugar to the U.S. With the election of King Kalākauain March 1874, riots prompted landing of bluejackets from USS Tuscorora and Portsmouth. HP G62-110SS Battery

The British warship, HMS Tenedos, also landed a token force. During the reign of King Kalākaua the United States was granted exclusive rights to enter Pearl Harbor and to establish "a coaling and repair station." HP G62-110SW Battery

This treaty continued in force until August 1898, the U.S. did not fortify Pearl Harbor as a naval base. The shallow entrance constituted a formidable barrier against the use of the deep protected waters of the inner harbor as it had for 60 years. HP G62-111EE Battery

The United States and the Hawaiian Kingdom signed the Reciprocity Treaty of 1875 as supplemented by Convention on December 6, 1884 and ratified in 1887. On January 20, 1887, the United States Senate allowed the Navy to exclusive right to maintain a coaling and repair station at Pearl Harbor. HP G62-112EE Battery

>ref name = nrhpinv/> (the US took possession on November 9 that year). TheSpanish-American War of 1898 and the desire for the United States to have a permanent presence in the Pacific both contributed to the decision. HP G62-112SO Battery

1899–1941

Following the annexation, Pearl Harbor was refitted to allow for more navy ships. In May 1899, Commander F. Merry was made naval representative with authority to transact business for the Navy Department and its Bureaus. HP G62-113SO Battery

He immediately assumed control of the Coal Depot and its equipment. To supplement his facilities, he was assigned the Navy tug Iroquois and two coal barges. Inquiries that commenced in June culminated in the establishment of the "Naval Station, Honolulu" on November 17, 1899. HP G62-115SE Battery

On February 2, 1900, this title was changed to "Naval Station, Hawaii."

The creation of the Naval Station allowed the Navy Department to explore territorial outposts. In October 1899, Nero and Iroquois made extensive surveys and sounding of the waterways to Midway and Guam. HP G62-115SO Battery

One of the reasons for these explorations was to select a possible cable route to Luzon.

A coal famine and an outbreak of the bubonic plague were the only two incidents that hindered the Commandant from fulfilling his duties. HP G62-117SO Battery

Because of the severe coal shortage in September 1899, the Commandant sold coal to the Oahu Railway and Land Company and the Inter-Island Steam Navigation Company, Ltd. Although this indicated the affinity of economic ties with the Navy, HP G62-118EO Battery

it was to a certain extent counteracted by the quarantine of the naval establishment from December 1899-February 1900, because of the bubonic plague. Approximately 61 deaths were recorded in Honolulu for this period. Work was consequently delayed on nascent Navy projects in Honolulu Harbor. HP G62-120EC Battery

From 1900-1908, the Navy devoted its time to improving the facilities of the 85 acres (34 ha) that constituted the naval reservation in Honolulu. Under the Appropriation Act of March 3, 1901, this tract of land was improved with the erection of additional sheds and housing. HP G62-120EE Battery

Improvements included a machine shop, smithery and foundry, Commandant's house and stables, cottage for the watchman, fencing, 10-ton wharf crane, and water-pipe system. The harbor was dredged and the channel enlarged to accommodate larger ships. HP G62-120EG Battery

On May 28, 1903, the first battleship, Wisconsin, entered the harbor for coal and water. However, when the vessels of the Asiatic station visited Honolulu in January 1904, Rear Admiral Silas Terry complained that they were inadequately accommodated with dockage and water. HP G62-120EH Battery

Under the above Appropriation Act, Congress approved the acquisition of lands for the development of a naval station at Pearl Harbor and the improvement of the channel to the Lochs. The Commandant, under the direction of the Bureau of Equipment, attempted to obtain options on lands surrounding Pearl Harbor that were recommended for naval use. HP G62-120EK Battery

This endeavor was unsuccessful when the owners of the property refused to accept what was deemed to be a fair price. Condemnation proceedings, under the Hawaiian law of eminent domain, were begun on July 6, 1901. The land acquired by this suit included the present Navy Yard, Kauhua Island, and a strip on the southeast coast of Ford Island. HP G62-120EL Battery

The work of dredging the coral reef that blocked Pearl Harbor progressed rapidly enough to allow the gunboatPetrel to proceed to the upper part of Main Loch in January 1905.

One of the early concerns of the growing station was that the Army would make claims on its property. HP G62-120EP Battery

Because of their facilities, as wharves, cranes, artesian wells, and coal supplies, many requests were made by the Army for their use. By February 1901, the Army had made application for the privilege of establishing on Navy docks movable cranes for handling coal and other stores, a saluting battery and a flag staff on the naval reservation, and an artesian well of its own. HP G62-120EQ Battery

All these requests were rejected by the Bureau of Equipment on the theory that, once granted, they "will practically constitute a permanent foothold on the property, and end in dividing it between the two Departments, or in the entire exclusion of the Navy Department on the ground of military expediency as established by frequency of use." HP G62-120ER Battery

However, the Army Depot Quartermaster at Honolulu contracted for the sinking of an artesian well on the Naval Station with the Commandant's approval, who, in turn, acted on a recommendation of the Bureau of Yards and Docks. The flow of water obtained amounted to over 1.5 million gallons per day, sufficient for all purposes of the Army and Navy. HP G62-120ES Battery

The Bureau of Equipment felt that its word of caution was justified when the Depot Quartermaster in 1902 let it be known that any water used by the Navy from the artesian well was "only given by courtesy of the Army." HP G62-120ET Battery

Despite the warnings of the Bureau of Equipment, the War Department, the Department of Labor and Commerce, and the Department of Agriculture had secured permission to settle on the naval reservation. HP G62-120EY Battery

By 1906, the Commandant believed that it was necessary for the Bureau of Yards and Docks to develop a policy on the future of the station. The docks were being used to a greater extent by the Army transports, than by Navy ships, and the Army was actually attempting to get possession of Quarantine Wharf HP G62-120SE Battery

 (which was built by the Territorial Government on the Naval Reservation, with the understanding that it could be taken over at any time by the Navy Department upon the payment of its appraised value.) In 1903, the Department of Labor and Commerce received about 7 acres (2.8 ha) for an Immigration Station. HP G62-120SL Battery

The Department of Agriculture had, in the meanwhile, secured part of the site intended for a hospital as an experimental station. The Commandant felt that, if the station was going to develop beyond a mere coaling depot, these territorial encroachments on the part of other departments should be stopped, particularly when they were enjoying the benefits of naval appropriations. HP G62-120SS Battery

"On the other hand," he wrote, "if it is the intention to improve Pearl Harbor and eventually abandon this station every effort should be made to begin work there as soon as possible. . . . I am informed that important commercial interests will make a strong effort next year to have Pearl Harbor improved, HP G62-120SW Battery

and I think that will be an opportune time for the Navy Department to make efforts in the same direction."

In 1908, the Pearl Harbor Naval Shipyard was established. The period from 1908-1919 was one of steady and continuous growth of the Naval Station, HP G62-121EE Battery

Pearl Harbor, with the exception of the discouraging collapse of the drydock in 1913. The Act of May 13, 1908 authorized the enlargement and dredging of the Pearl Harbor channel and lochs "to admit the largest ships," the building of shops and supply houses for the Navy Yard, and the construction of a drydock. HP G62-125EK Battery

Work on the dock started on September 21, 1909. In April 1910, the barquentine Amaranth became the fourth deep-sea, cargo-carrying vessel to venture into the newly dredged harbor, having been preceded by the three-masted schooner W.H. Marston on March 8, and the schooner Ariel and bark Marston a few days later. HP G62-125EL Battery

Amaranth delivered materials for construction of the dry dock facility.^[8] Work progressed satisfactorily on all projects, except the drydock. After much wrangling with Congress to secure an appropriation of over three million dollars for its construction, the drydock was wrecked by "underground pressure." "HP G62-125EV Battery

On February 17, 1913, the entire drydock structure rumbled, rocked, and caved in." The drydock was ceremonially opened to flooding on August 21, 1919, by Mrs. Josephus Daniels, wife of the Secretary of the Navy. In 1917, Ford Island in the middle of Pearl Harbor was purchased for joint Army and Navy use in the development of military aviation in the Pacific. HP G62-125SL Battery

As the Japanese military pressed its war in China, concern over Japan's intentions caused the U.S. to begin taking defensive measures. On February 1, 1933, the U.S. Navy staged a mock attack on the base at Pearl Harbor as part of a preparedness exercise. The attack "succeeded" and the defense was deemed a "failure".HP G62-130 Battery

The actual attack on Pearl Harbor by the Empire of Japan on December 7, 1941 brought the United States into World War II.

Sunday, December 7, 1941

Aircraft and midget submarines of the Imperial Japanese Navy began an attack on the U.S naval base. HP G62-130EG Battery

Through earlier code breaking activity, the Americans had determined that an attack was likely to occur. However, while the Americans failed to discover Japan's target location, it was believed that the Philippines was the most likely target. ^[9] HP G62-130EK Battery

Under the command of Admiral Chuichi Nagumo,^[9] the attack was devastating in loss of life and damage to the U.S. fleet. At 06:05 on December 7, the six Japanese carriers launched a first wave of 183 aircraft composed mainly of dive bombers, horizontal bombers and fighters. HP G62-130ET Battery

The Japanese hit American ships and military installations at 07:51. The first wave attacked military airfields of Ford Island. At 08:30, a second wave of 170 Japanese aircraft, mostly torpedo bombers, attacked the fleet anchored in Pearl Harbor. HP G62-130EV Battery

The battleship Arizona was hit with an armor-piercing bomb which penetrated the forward ammunition compartment, blowing the ship apart and sinking it within seconds. It was one of eight US battleships at the dock, five of which were sunk and the remaining three were badly damaged. HP G62-130SD Battery

Overall, 9 ships of the U.S. fleet were sunk and 21 ships were severely damaged. 3 of the 21 would be irreparable. The overall death toll reached 2,402 ^[11] and 1,282 wounded, including 68 civilians. Of the military personnel lost at Pearl Harbor, 1,177 were from the Arizona. HP G62-130SL Battery

The first shots fired were from the destroyer Ward on a midget submarine that surfaced outside of Pearl Harbor; Ward sank the midget sub at approximately 06:55, about an hour before the attack on Pearl Harbor. Japan would lose 29 out of the 350 aircraft they attacked with. HP G62-134CA Battery

National Historic Landmark

The Navy base itself was recognized on January 29, 1964 as a National Historic Landmark district and with the National Register of Historic Places since 1976. HP G62-135EV Battery

Within its bounds, it contains several other National Historic Landmarks associated with the attack on Pearl Harbor, including the Arizona, Bowfin, and Utah. As an active Navy base, many of the historic buildings that contributed to the NHL designation are under threat of demolition and rebuilding. HP G62-140EL Battery

The attack on Pearl Harbor (called Hawaii Operation or Operation AI^[7][8] by the Japanese Imperial General Headquarters (Operation Z in planning)^[9] and the Battle of Pearl Harbor^[10]) was a surprisemilitary strike conducted by the Imperial Japanese Navy against the United States naval base at Pearl Harbor, HP G62-140EQ Battery

Hawaii, on the morning of December 7, 1941 (December 8 in Japan). The attack was intended as a preventiveaction in order to keep the U.S. Pacific Fleet from interfering with military actions the Empire of Japan was planning in Southeast Asia against overseas territories of the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, and the United States. HP G62-140ES Battery

The base was attacked by 353^[11] Japanese fighters, bombers and torpedo planes in two waves, launched from sixaircraft carriers.^[11] All eight U.S. Navy battleships were damaged, with four being sunk. Of these eight damaged, two were raised, and with four repaired, six battleships returned to service later in the war. HP G62-140ET Battery

The Japanese also sank or damaged three cruisers, three destroyers, an anti-aircraft training ship,^{[nb 4]} and oneminelayer. 188 U.S. aircraft were destroyed; 2,402 Americans were killed^[13] and 1,282 wounded. The power station, shipyard, maintenance, and fuel and torpedo storage facilities, HP G62-140SF Battery

as well as the submarine piers and headquarters building (also home of the intelligence section) were not attacked. Japanese losses were light: 29 aircraft and five midget submarines lost, and 65 servicemen killed or wounded. One Japanese sailor was captured. HP G62-140SS Battery

The attack came as a profound shock to the American people and led directly to the American entry into World War II in both the Pacific and European theaters. The following day (December 8), the United States declared war on Japan. Domestic support for isolationism, which had been strong,^[14] disappeared. HP G62-140US Battery

Clandestine support of Britain (for example the Neutrality Patrol) was replaced by active alliance. Subsequent operations by the U.S. prompted Germany and Italy to declare war on the U.S. on December 11, which was reciprocated by the U.S. the same day. HP G62-143CL Battery

There were numerous historical precedents for unannounced military action by Japan. However, the lack of any formal warning, particularly while negotiations were still apparently ongoing, led President Franklin D. Roosevelt to proclaim December 7, 1941, "a date which will live in infamy".HP G62-144DX Battery

Anticipating war

The attack on Pearl Harbor was intended to neutralize the U.S. Pacific Fleet, and hence protect Japan's advance into Malaya and the Dutch East Indies, where she sought access to natural resources such as oil and rubber. HP G62-145NR Battery

War between Japan and the United States had been a possibility each nation had been aware of (and developed contingency plans for) since the 1920s, though tensions did not begin to grow seriously until Japan's 1931 invasion of Manchuria. HP G62-147NR Battery

Over the next decade, Japan continued to expand into China, leading to all-out war in 1937. Japan spent considerable effort trying to isolate China and achieve sufficient resource independence to attain victory on the mainland; the "Southern Operation" was designed to assist these efforts.^[15] HP G62-149WM Battery

From December 1937, events such as the Japanese attack on the USS Panay and the Nanking Massacre (more than 200,000 killed in indiscriminate massacres) swung public opinion in the West sharply against Japan and increased their fear of Japanese expansion,^[16] HP G62-150EE Battery

 which prompted the United States, the United Kingdom, and France to provide loan assistance for war supply contracts to the Republic of China.

In 1940, Japan invaded French Indochina in an effort to control supplies reaching China. HP G62-150EF Battery

The United States halted shipments of airplanes, parts, machine tools, and aviation gasoline, which was perceived by Japan as an unfriendly act.^{[nb 5]} The U.S. did not stop oil exports to Japan at that time in part because prevailing sentiment in Washington was that such an action would be an extreme step, HP G62-150EQ Battery

given Japanese dependence on U.S. oil,^[18][19] and likely to be considered a provocation by Japan.

Early in 1941, President Franklin D. Roosevelt moved the Pacific Fleet to Hawaii from its previous base in San Diego and ordered a military buildup in thePhilippines in the hope of discouraging Japanese aggression in the Far East. HP G62-150ET Battery

Because the Japanese high command was (mistakenly) certain any attack on the British Southeast Asian colonies would bring the U.S. into the war, a devastating preventive strike appeared to be the only way to avoid U.S. naval interference.^[20] HP G62-150EV Battery

 An invasion of the Philippines was also considered to be necessary by Japanese war planners. The U.S. War Plan Orange had envisioned defending the Philippines with a 40,000 man elite force. This was opposed by Douglas MacArthur, who felt that he would need a force ten times that size, and was never implemented.^[21] HP G62-150SE Battery

By 1941, U.S. planners anticipated abandonment of the Philippines at the outbreak of war and orders to that effect were given in late 1941 toAdmiral Thomas Hart, commander of the Asiatic Fleet.

The U.S. ceased oil exports to Japan in July 1941, following Japanese expansion into French Indochina after the fall of France, HP G62-150SF Battery

in part because of new American restrictions on domestic oil consumption.^[23] This in turn caused the Japanese to proceed with plans to take the Dutch East Indies, an oil-rich territory. The Japanese were faced with the option of either withdrawing from HP G62-150SL Battery

China and losing face or seizing and securing new sources of raw materials in the resource-rich, European-controlled colonies of South East Asia.

Preliminary planning for an attack on Pearl Harbor to protect the move into the "Southern Resource Area" HP G62-153CA Battery

 (the Japanese term for the Dutch East Indies and Southeast Asia generally) had begun very early in 1941 under the auspices of Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto, then commanding Japan's Combined Fleet.^[25] He won assent to formal planning and training for an attack from HP G62-154CA Battery

the Imperial Japanese Navy General Staff only after much contention with Naval Headquarters, including a threat to resign his command.^[26] Full-scale planning was underway by early spring 1941, primarily by Captain Minoru Genda. Japanese planning staff studied the 1940 British air attack on the Italian fleet at Taranto intensively. HP G62-165SL Battery

It was of great use to them when planning their attack on U.S. naval forces in Pearl Harbor.^{[nb 7][nb 8]}

Over the next several months, pilots trained, equipment was adapted, and intelligence collected. HP G62-166SB Battery

Despite these preparations, the attack plan was not approved byEmperor Hirohito until November 5, after the third of four Imperial Conferences called to consider the matter.^[29] Final authorization was not given by the emperor until December 1, HP G62-200XX Battery

after a majority of Japanese leaders advised him the "Hull Note" would "destroy the fruits of the China incident, endanger Manchukuo and undermine Japanese control of Korea."^[30]

By late 1941, many observers believed that hostilities between the U.S. and Japan were imminent. HP G62-201XX Battery

A Gallup poll just before the attack on Pearl Harbor found that 52% of Americans expected war with Japan, 27% did not expect war, and 21% had no opinion.^[31] While U.S. Pacific bases and facilities had been placed on alert on multiple occasions, U.S. officials doubted Pearl Harbor would be the first target. HP G62-219WM Battery

They expected the Philippines to be attacked first. This presumption was due to the threat that the air bases throughout the country and the naval base at Manila posed to sea lanes, as well as the shipment of supplies to Japan from territory to the south.^[32] HP G62-251XX Battery

They also incorrectly believed that Japan was not capable of mounting more than one major naval operation at a time.^[33]

Objectives

The attack had several major aims. First, it intended to destroy important American fleet units, thereby preventing the Pacific Fleet from interfering with Japanese conquest of the Dutch East Indies and Malaya. HP G62-400 Battery

Second, it was hoped to buy time for Japan to consolidate its position and increase its naval strength before shipbuilding authorized by the 1940 Vinson-Walsh Act erased any chance of victory. HP G62-450SA Battery

Finally, it was meant to deliver a severe blow to American morale, one which would discourage Americans from committing to a war extending into the western Pacific Ocean and Dutch East Indies. To maximize the effect on morale, battleships were chosen as the main targets, since they were the prestige ships of any navy at the time. HP G62-451SA Battery

The overall intention was to enable Japan to conquer Southeast Asia without interference.^[34]

Striking the Pacific Fleet at anchor in Pearl Harbor carried two distinct disadvantages: HP G62-452SA Battery

the targeted ships would be in very shallow water, so it would be relatively easy to salvage and possibly repair them; and most of the crews would survive the attack, since many would be on shore leave or would be rescued from the harbor. HP G62-454TU Battery

A further important disadvantage—this of timing, and known to the Japanese—was the absence from Pearl Harbor of all three of the U.S. Pacific Fleet's aircraft carriers (Enterprise, Lexington, and Saratoga). Ironically, the IJN top command was so imbued with Admiral Mahan's "decisive battle" doctrine—HP G62-456TU Battery

especially that of destroying the maximum number of battleships—that, despite these concerns, Yamamoto decided to press ahead.

Japanese confidence in their ability to achieve a short, victorious war also meant other targets in the harbor, especially the navy yard, oil tank farms, HP G62-460TX Battery

and submarine base, could safely be ignored, since—by their thinking—the war would be over before the influence of these facilities would be felt.^[36]

Approach and attack

On November 26, 1941, a Japanese task force (the Striking Force) of six aircraft carriers (Akagi, Kaga, Sōryū, Hiryū,Shōkaku, and Zuikaku) HP G62-467TX Battery

departed northern Japan en route to a position northwest of Hawaii, intending to launch its aircraft to attack Pearl Harbor. In all, 408 aircraft were intended to be used: 360 for the two attack waves, 48 on defensive combat air patrol (CAP), including nine fighters from the first wave. HP G62-468TX Battery

The first wave was to be the primary attack, while the second wave was to finish whatever tasks remained. The first wave contained the bulk of the weapons to attack capital ships, mainly specially adapted Type 91 aerial torpedoes which were designed with an anti-roll mechanism and HP G62-550EE Battery

a rudder extension that let them operate in shallow water.^[37] The aircrews were ordered to select the highest value targets (battleships and aircraft carriers) or, if these were not present, any other high value ships (cruisers and destroyers). Dive bombers were to attack ground targets. HP G62-a00 Battery

Fighters were ordered to strafe and destroy as many parked aircraft as possible to ensure they did not get into the air to counterattack the bombers, especially in the first wave. When the fighters' fuel got low they were to refuel at the aircraft carriers and return to combat. HP G62-a00EF Battery

Fighters were to serve CAP duties where needed, especially over US airfields.

Before the attack commenced, two reconnaissance aircraft launched from cruisers were sent to scout over Oahu and report on enemy fleet composition and location. HP G62-a01SA Battery

Another four scout planes patrolled the area between the Japanese carrier force (theKido Butai) and Niihau, in order to prevent the task force from being caught by a surprise counterattack.^[38]

Submarines

Fleet submarines I-16, I-18, I-20, I-22, and I-24 each embarked a Type A midget submarine for transport to the waters off Oahu. HP G62-a02SA Battery

 The five I-boats left Kure Naval District on November 25, 1941,^[40] coming to 10 nautical miles (19 km; 12 mi) off the harbor mouth^[41] and launched their charges at about 01:00 on December 7.^[42] At 03:42^[43] HP G62-a03SA Battery

Hawaiian Time, the minesweeper Condor spotted a midget submarine periscope southwest of the Pearl Harbor entrance buoy and alerted the destroyer Ward.^[44] The midget may have entered Pearl Harbor. However, Ward sank another midget submarine at 06:37in the first American shots in the Pacific Theater. HP G62-a04EA Battery

A midget submarine on the north side of Ford Island missed the seaplane tender Curtiss with her first torpedo and missed the attacking destroyer Monaghan with her other one before being sunk byMonaghan at 08:43.^[44] HP G62-a04SA Battery

A third midget submarine grounded twice, once outside the harbor entrance and again on the east side of Oahu, where it was captured on December 8.^[46] EnsignKazuo Sakamaki swam ashore and was captured, becoming the first Japanese prisoner of war. HP G62-a10EV Battery

A fourth had been damaged by a depth charge attack and was abandoned by its crew before it could fire its torpedoes.^[47] A United States Naval Institute analysis of photographs from the attack conducted in 1999 indicated a midget submarine may have successfully fired a torpedo into West Virginia. HP G62-a10SA Battery

Japanese forces received a radio message from a midget submarine at 00:41 December 8 claiming damage to one or more large war vessels inside Pearl Harbor.^[48] The submarine's final disposition is unknown,^[49] but she did not return to her "mother" sub.^[50] HP G62-a11SA Battery

On December 7, 2009, the Los Angeles Times reported there is circumstantial evidence three pieces of a submarine discovered 3 mi (2.6 nmi; 4.8 km) south of Pearl Harbor between 1994 and 2001 could be the missing submarine. HP G62-a11SE Battery

It also reported there is strong circumstantial evidence the submarine fired two torpedoes at Battleship Row. The debris was dumped outside the harbor as part of an effort to conceal the West Loch Disaster, a 1944 ammunition explosion that destroyed six tank landing ships preparing for Operation Forager.^[51] HP G62-a12SA Battery

Japanese declaration of war

The attack took place before any formal declaration of war was made by Japan, but this was not Admiral Yamamoto's intention. He originally stipulated that the attack should not commence until thirty minutes after Japan had informed the United States that peace negotiations were at an end. HP G62-a12SE Battery

 The Japanese tried to uphold the conventions of war while still achieving surprise, but the attack began before the notice could be delivered. Tokyo transmitted the 5,000-word notification (commonly called the "14-Part Message") in two blocks to the Japanese Embassy in Washington, HP G62-a13EE Battery

but transcribing the message took too long for the Japanese ambassador to deliver it in time. (In fact, U.S. code breakers had already deciphered and translated most of the message hours before he was scheduled to deliver it.)^[54] The final part of the "14 Part Message" is sometimes described as a declaration of war. HP G62-a13SA Battery

While it neither declared war nor severed diplomatic relations, it was viewed by a number of senior U.S government and military officials as a very strong indicator that negotiations were likely to be terminated^[55] and that war might break out at any moment.^[56] HP G62-a13SE Battery

A declaration of war was printed on the front page of Japan's newspapers in the evening edition of December 8,^[57] but not delivered to the U.S. government until the day after the attack. HP G62-a14SA Battery

For decades, conventional wisdom held that Japan attacked without any official warning of a break in relations only because of accidents and bumbling that delayed the delivery of a document hinting at war to Washington. In 1999, however, Takeo Iguchi, HP G62-a15EO Battery

a professor of law and international relations at International Christian University in Tokyo, discovered documents that pointed to a vigorous debate inside the government over how, and indeed whether, to notify Washington of Japan's intention to break off negotiations and start a war, HP G62-a15SA Battery

including a December 7 entry in the war diary saying, "our deceptive diplomacy is steadily proceeding toward success." Of this, Iguchi said, "The diary shows that the army and navy did not want to give any proper declaration of war, or indeed prior notice even of the termination of negotiations ... [a]nd they clearly prevailed."^[58] HP G62-a16SA Battery

First wave composition

The first attack wave of 183 planes was launched north of Oahu, led by Commander Mitsuo Fuchida.^[59] It included:^{[nb 11]}

1st Group (targets: battleships and aircraft carriers)^[61] HP G62-a17EA Battery

• 50 Nakajima B5N Kate bombers armed with 800 kg (1760 lb) armor piercing bombs, organized in four sections
• 40 B5N bombers armed with Type 91 torpedoes, also in four sections
• 2nd Group – (targets: Ford Island and Wheeler Field)

54 Aichi D3A Val dive bombers armed with 550 lb (249 kg) general purpose bombsHP G62-a17SA Battery

• 3rd Group – (targets: aircraft at Ford Island, Hickam Field, Wheeler Field, Barber’s Point, Kaneohe)
• 45 Mitsubishi A6M Zeke fighters for air control and strafing^[60]

Six planes failed to launch due to technical difficulties. HP G62-a18SA Battery

As the first wave approached Oahu, a U.S. Army SCR-270 radar at Opana Point near the island's northern tip (a post not yet operational, having been in training mode for months) detected it and called in a warning. HP G62-a19EA Battery

Radar had been in use in a training mode by the U.S Army Hawaiian Department for some time, but was not fully operational.^[62]Although the operators, Privates George Elliot Jr. and Joseph Lockard,^[63] reported a target, a newly assigned officer at the thinly manned Intercept Center, Lieutenant Kermit A. HP G62-a19SA Battery

Tyler, presumed it was the scheduled arrival of six B-17 bombers. The direction from which the aircraft were coming was close (only a few degrees separated the two inbound courses),^[64] while the operators had never seen a formation as large on radar; HP G62-a20SA Battery

 ^[65] they neglected to tell Tyler of its size,^[66] while Tyler, for security reasons, could not tell them the B-17s were due^[66] (even though it was widely known).^[66]

Several U.S. aircraft were shot down as the first wave approached land, and one at least radioed a somewhat incoherent warning. HP G62-a21EA Battery

Other warnings from ships off the harbor entrance were still being processed or awaiting confirmation when the attacking planes began bombing and strafing. Nevertheless, it is not clear any warnings would have had much effect even if they had been interpreted correctly and much more promptly. HP G62-a21SA Battery

 The results the Japanese achieved in the Philippines were essentially the same as at Pearl Harbor, though MacArthur had almost nine hours warning that the Japanese had already attacked at Pearl.

The air portion of the attack on Pearl Harbor began at 7:48 a.m. HP G62-a22SA Battery

Hawaiian Time^[67] (3:18 a.m. December 8 Japanese Standard Time, as kept by ships of the Kido Butai),^{[68][nb 12]} with the attack on Kaneohe. A total of 353^[11]Japanese planes in two waves reached Oahu. Slow, vulnerable torpedo bombers led the first wave, HP G62-a22SE Battery

exploiting the first moments of surprise to attack the most important ships present (the battleships), while dive bombers attacked U.S. air bases across Oahu, starting with Hickam Field, the largest, and Wheeler Field, the main U.S. Army Air Force fighter base. HP G62-a23SA Battery

The 171 planes in the second wave attacked the Air Corps' Bellows Field near Kaneohe on the windward side of the island, and Ford Island. The only aerial opposition came from a handful of P-36 Hawks,P-40 Warhawks and some SBD Dauntless dive bombers from the carrier USS Enterprise.^{[nb 13]} HP G62-a24SA Battery

Men aboard U.S. ships awoke to the sounds of alarms, bombs exploding, and gunfire, prompting bleary-eyed men into dressing as they ran to General Quarters stations. (The famous message, "Air raid Pearl Harbor. This is not drill.",^{[nb 14]} was sent from the headquarters of Patrol Wing Two, the first senior Hawaiian command to respond.) HP G62-a25EA Battery

The defenders were very unprepared. Ammunition lockers were locked, aircraft parked wingtip to wingtip in the open to deter sabotage,^[69] guns unmanned (none of the Navy's 5"/38s, only a quarter of itsmachine guns, and only four of 31 Army batteries got in action).^[69] HP G62-a25SA Battery

Despite this lowalert status, many American military personnel responded effectively during the battle.^{[nb 15]} Ensign Joe Taussig, Jr., the only commissioned officer aboard USSNevada, got the ship underway during the attack but lost a leg. The ship was beached in the harbor by the Senior Quartermaster.^[70] HP G62-a26SA Battery

One of the destroyers, USS Aylwin, got underway with only four officers aboard, all ensigns, none with more than a year's sea duty; she operated at sea for 36 hours before her commanding officer managed to get back aboard.^[71] Captain Mervyn Bennion, HP G62-a27SA Battery

commanding USS West Virginia, led his men until he was cut down by fragments from a bomb which hit USS Tennessee, moored alongside.

Second wave composition

The second wave consisted of 171 planes: 54 B5Ns, 81 D3As, and 36 A6Ms, commanded by Lieutenant-Commander Shigekazu Shimazaki.^[60] HP G62-a28SA Battery

Four planes failed to launch because of technical difficulties.^[38] This wave and its targets comprised:^[60]

• 1st Group – 54 B5Ns armed with 550 lb (249 kg) and 132 lb (60 kg) general purpose bombs^[61]

27 B5Ns – aircraft and hangars on Kaneohe, Ford Island, and Barbers Point HP G62-a29EA Battery

• 27 B5Ns – hangars and aircraft on Hickam Field
• 2nd Group (targets: aircraft carriers and cruisers)
• 81 D3As armed with 550 lb (249 kg) general purpose bombs, in four sections
• 3rd Group – (targets: aircraft at Ford Island, Hickam Field, Wheeler Field, Barber’s Point, Kaneohe)

36 A6Ms for defense and strafing HP G62-a29SA Battery

The second wave was divided into three groups. One was tasked to attack Kāneʻohe, the rest Pearl Harbor proper. The separate sections arrived at the attack point almost simultaneously from several directions.

Ninety minutes after it began, the attack was over. 2,386 Americans died HP G62-a30SA Battery

 (55 were civilians, most killed by unexploded American anti-aircraft shells landing in civilian areas), a further 1,139 wounded. Eighteen ships were sunk or run aground, including five battleships.

Of the American fatalities, nearly half of the total (1,177) were due to the explosion of Arizona's forward magazine after it was hit by a modified 40 cm (16 in.) shell.^{[nb 17]} HP G62-a38EE Battery

Already damaged by a torpedo and on fire amidships, Nevada attempted to exit the harbor. She was targeted by many Japanese bombers as she got under way and sustained more hits from 250 lb (113 kg) bombs, which started further fires. She was deliberately beached to avoid blocking the harbor entrance. HP G62-a40SA Battery

California was hit by two bombs and two torpedoes. The crew might have kept her afloat, but were ordered to abandon ship just as they were raising power for the pumps. Burning oil from Arizona and West Virginia drifted down on her, and probably made the situation look worse than it was. HP G62-a43SA Battery

The disarmed target ship Utah was holed twice by torpedoes. West Virginia was hit by seven torpedoes, the seventh tearing away her rudder. Oklahoma was hit by four torpedoes, the last two above her belt armor, which caused her to capsize. HP G62-a44EE Battery

Maryland was hit by two of the converted 40 cm shells, but neither caused serious damage.

Although the Japanese concentrated on battleships (the largest vessels present), they did not ignore other targets. HP G62-a44SA Battery

Thelight cruiser Helena was torpedoed, and the concussion from the blast capsized the neighboring minelayer Oglala. Two destroyers in dry dock, Cassin and Downes were destroyed when bombs penetrated their fuel bunkers. The leaking fuel caught fire; HP G62-a45SA Battery

flooding the dry dock in an effort to fight fire made the burning oil rise, and both were burned out. Cassin slipped from her keel blocks and rolled against Downes. The light cruiser Raleigh was holed by a torpedo. The light cruiser Honolulu was damaged but remained in service. HP G62-a50SG Battery

The repair vesselVestal, moored alongside Arizona, was heavily damaged and beached. The seaplane tender Curtiss was also damaged. The destroyer Shaw was badly damaged when two bombs penetrated her forward magazine.

Of the 402^[11] American aircraft in Hawaii, 188 were destroyed and 159 damaged,^[11] 155 of them on the ground. HP G62-a53SG Battery

Almost none was actually ready to take off to defend the base. Eight Army Air Corps pilots managed to get airborne during the battle^[73] and six were credited with downing at least one Japanese aircraft during the attack, 1st Lt. Lewis M. Sanders, 2nd Lt. Philip M. Rasmussen, HP G62-a60SA Battery

2nd Lt. Kenneth M. Taylor, 2nd Lt. George S. Welch, 2nd Lt. Harry W. Brown, and 2nd Lt. Gordon H. Sterling Jr. Sterling was shot down and killed by friendly fire returning from the fight.^[74] Of 33 PBYs in Hawaii, 24 were destroyed, and six others damaged beyond repair. HP G62-b00SA Battery

 (The three on patrol returned undamaged.) Friendly firebrought down some U.S. planes on top of that, including five from an inbound flight from Enterprise. Japanese attacks on barracks killed additional personnel.

Fifty-five Japanese airmen and nine submariners were killed in the action, and one was captured. HP G62-b09SA Battery

Of Japan's 414^[60]available planes, 29 were lost during the battle^[75] (nine in the first attack wave, 20 in the second),^{[nb 18]} with another 74 damaged by antiaircraft fire from the ground.

Possible third wave

Several Japanese junior officers, including Mitsuo Fuchida and Minoru Genda, HP G62-b10SA Battery

the chief architect of the attack, urged Nagumo to carry out a third strike in order to destroy as much of Pearl Harbor's fuel and torpedo^{[nb 19]} storage, maintenance, and dry dock facilities as possible;^[76] and the captains of the other five carriers in the formation reported they were willing and ready to carry out a third strike.^[77] HP G62-b11SA Battery

 Military historians have suggested the destruction of these would have hampered the U.S. Pacific Fleet far more seriously than loss of its battleships.^[78] If they had been wiped out, "serious [American] operations in the Pacific would have been postponed for more than a year";^[79] HP G62-b12SA Battery

according to American Admiral Chester Nimitz, later Commander in Chief of the Pacific Fleet, "it would have prolonged the war another two years."^[80] Nagumo, however, decided to withdraw for several reasons:

American anti-aircraft performance had improved considerably during the second strike, HP G62-b13EA Battery

and two thirds of Japan's losses were incurred during the second wave.^[81] Nagumo felt if he launched a third strike, he would be risking three quarters of the Combined Fleet's strength to wipe out the remaining targets (which included the facilities) while suffering higher aircraft losses.^[81] HP G62-b13SA Battery

The location of the American carriers remained unknown. In addition, the admiral was concerned his force was now within range of American land-based bombers.^[81] Nagumo was uncertain whether the U.S. had enough surviving planes remaining on Hawaii to launch an attack against his carriers.^[82] HP G62-b14SA Battery

A third wave would have required substantial preparation and turnaround time, and would have meant returning planes would have had to land at night. At the time, only the (British) Royal Navy had developed night carrier techniques, so this was a substantial risk.^[83] HP G62-b15SA Battery

The task force's fuel situation did not permit him to remain in waters north of Pearl Harbor much longer, since he was at the very limit of logistical support. To do so risked running unacceptably low on fuel, perhaps even having to abandon destroyers en route home.^[84] HP G62-b16EA Battery

He believed the second strike had essentially satisfied the main objective of his mission—the neutralization of the Pacific Fleet—and did not wish to risk further losses.^[85] Moreover, it was Japanese Navy practice to prefer the conservation of strength over the total destruction of the enemy.^[86] HP G62-b16SA Battery

At a conference aboard Yamato the following morning, Yamamoto initially supported Nagumo.^[85] In retrospect, sparing the vital dockyards, maintenance shops, and oil depots meant the U.S. could respond relatively quickly to Japanese activities in the Pacific. HP G62-b17EO Battery

Yamamoto later regretted Nagumo's decision to withdraw and categorically stated it had been a great mistake not to order a third strike.^[87]

Photographs

The first aerial photographs of the attack on Pearl Harbor were taken by Lee Embree, who was aboard a Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress en route from Hamilton Field, HP G62-b17SA Battery

California, to the Philippines.^[88] Lee's 38th Reconnaissance Squadron had scheduled a refueling stop at Hickam Field at the time of the attack.

After a systematic search for survivors, formal salvage operations began. Captain Homer N. Wallin, Material Officer for Commander, Battle Force, U.S. HP G62-b18SA Battery

Pacific Fleet, was immediately ordered to lead salvage operations. "Within a short time I was relieved of all other duties and ordered to full time work as Fleet Salvage Officer".^{[91][nb 20]}

Around Pearl Harbor, divers from the Navy (shore and tenders), the Naval Shipyard, and civilian contractors (Pacific Bridge and others) HP G62-b19SA Battery

began work on the ships that could be refloated. They patched holes, cleared debris, and pumped water out of ships. Navy divers worked inside the damaged ships. Within six months, five battleships and two cruisers were patched or refloated so they could be sent to shipyards in Pearl Harbor and on the mainland for extensive repair. HP G62-b20SA Battery

Intensive salvage operations continued for another year, a total of some 20,000 man-hours under water.^[93] Oklahoma, while successfully raised, was never repaired, and capsized while under tow to the mainland in 1947. Arizona and the target shipUtah were too heavily damaged for salvage, HP G62-B20so Battery

though much of their armament and equipment was removed and put to use aboard other vessels. Today, the two hulks remain where they were sunk,^[94] with Arizona becoming a war memorial.

Aftermath

In the wake of the attack, 15 Medals of Honor, 51 Navy Crosses, 53 Silver Stars, HP G62-b21SA Battery

four Navy and Marine Corps Medals, oneDistinguished Flying Cross, four Distinguished Service Crosses, one Distinguished Service Medal, and three Bronze Star Medalswere awarded to the American servicemen who distinguished themselves in combat at Pearl Harbor.^[95] HP G62-b22SA Battery

Additionally, a specialmilitary award, the Pearl Harbor Commemorative Medal, was later authorized for all military veterans of the attack.

The day after the attack, Roosevelt delivered his famous Infamy Speech to a Joint Session of Congress, calling for a formal declaration of war on the Empire of Japan. HP G62-b23SA Battery

Congress obliged his request less than an hour later. On December 11 Germany and Italy, honoring their commitments under the Tripartite Pact, declared war on the United States. The Tripartite Pact was an earlier agreement between Germany, Italy and Japan which had the principal objective of limiting U.S. intervention in any conflicts involving the three nations.^[96] HP G62-b24SA Battery

The United States Congress issued a declaration of war against Germany and Italy later that same day. Britain actually declared war on Japan nine hours before the US did, partially due to Japanese attacks on Malaya, Singapore and Hong Kong, and partially due to Winston Churchill's promise to declare war "within the hour" of a Japanese attack on the United States.^[97] HP G62-b25SA Battery

The attack was an initial shock to all the Allies in the Pacific Theater. Further losses compounded the alarming setback. Japan attacked the Philippines hours later (because of the time difference, it was December 8 in the Philippines). HP G62-b26SA Battery

Only three days after the attack on Pearl Harbor, the Prince of Wales and Repulse were sunk off the coast of Malaya, causing British Prime Minister Winston Churchill later to recollect "In all the war I never received a more direct shock. HP G62-b27EA Battery

As I turned and twisted in bed the full horror of the news sank in upon me. There were no British or American capital ships in the Indian Ocean or the Pacific except the American survivors of Pearl Harbor who were hastening back to California. HP G62-b27SA Battery

Over this vast expanse of waters Japan was supreme and we everywhere were weak and naked".^[98]

Throughout the war, Pearl Harbor was frequently used in American propaganda.^[99]

One further consequence of the attacks on Pearl Harbor and its aftermath (notably the Niihau Incident) HP G62 Battery

was that Japanese American residents and citizens were relocated to nearby Japanese-American internment camps. Within hours of the attack, hundreds of Japanese American leaders were rounded up and brought to high-security camps such as Sand Island at the mouth of Honolulu harbor and Kilauea Military Camp on the island of Hawaii. HP G62 Notebook PC Series Battery

Later, over 110,000 Japanese Americans, including United States citizens, were removed from their homes and transferred to internment camps in California, Idaho, Utah, Arizona, Wyoming, Colorado, and Arkansas. HP G62t-100 CTO Battery

Niihau Incident

The Japanese planners had determined that some means of rescuing fliers whose aircraft were too badly damaged to return to the carriers was required. The island of Niihau, only 30 minutes flying time from Pearl Harbor, was designated as the rescue point. HP G62t Battery

The Zero flown by Petty Officer Shigenori Nishikaichi of Hiryu was damaged in the attack on Wheeler, and he flew to the rescue point on Niihau. The aircraft was further damaged on landing. Nishikaichi was helped from the wreckage by one of the native Hawaiian inhabitants, HP G72-100 Battery

who, aware of the tension between the United States and Japan, took the pilot's maps and other documents. The island’s residents had no telephones or radio and were completely unaware of the attack on Pearl Harbor. Nishikaichi enlisted the support of two Japanese-American residents in an attempt to recover the documents. HP G72-101SA Battery

During the ensuing struggles, Nishikaichi was killed, one collaborator committed suicide, and his wife was sent to prison.

The ease with which the local ethnic Japanese residents apparently went to the assistance of Nishikaichi was a source of concern for many, and tended to support those who believed that local Japanese could not be trusted. HP G72-102SA Battery

Strategic implications

Admiral Hara Tadaichi summed up the Japanese result by saying, "We won a great tactical victory at Pearl Harbor and thereby lost the war."^[105] While the attack accomplished its intended objective, it turned out to be largely unnecessary. HP G72-105SA Battery

Unbeknownst to Yamamoto, who conceived the original plan, the U.S. Navy had decided as far back as 1935 to abandon 'charging' across the Pacific towards the Philippines in response to an outbreak of war (in keeping with the evolution of Plan Orange). HP G72-110EL Battery

The U.S. instead adopted "Plan Dog" in 1940, which emphasized keeping the IJN out of the eastern Pacific and away from the shipping lanes to Australia while the U.S. concentrated on defeating Nazi Germany.^[106]

Fortunately for the United States, the American aircraft carriers were untouched by the Japanese attack, HP G72-110EV Battery

otherwise the Pacific Fleet's ability to conduct offensive operations would have been crippled for a year or so (given no diversions from the Atlantic Fleet). As it was, the elimination of the battleships left the U.S. Navy with no choice but to rely on its aircraft carriers and submarines—the very weapons with which the U.S. HP G72-110SA Battery

Navy halted and eventually reversed the Japanese advance. While six of the eight battleships were repaired and returned to service, their relatively slow speed limited their deployment, and they served mainly in shore bombardment roles. HP G72-110SD Battery

A major flaw of Japanese strategic thinking was a belief that the ultimate Pacific battle would be fought by battleships, in keeping with the doctrine of Captain Alfred Thayer Mahan. As a result, Yamamoto (and his successors) hoarded battleships for a "decisive battle" that never happened. HP G72-110SO Battery

Ultimately, targets not on Genda's list, such as the submarine base and the old headquarters building, proved more important than any battleship. It was submarines that immobilized the Imperial Japanese Navy's heavy ships and brought Japan's economy to a virtual standstill by crippling the transportation of oil and raw materials: HP G72-110SW Battery

import of raw materials was down by half what it had been at the end of 1942, "to a disastrous ten million tons", while oil import "was almost completely stopped".^[108] Also, the basement of the Old Administration Building was the home of the cryptanalytic unit which contributed significantly to the Midway ambush and the Submarine Force's success. HP G72-120EG Battery

Present day

Today, the USS Arizona Memorial on the island of Oahu honors the lives lost on the day of the attack. Visitors to the memorial reach it via boats from the naval base at Pearl Harbor. HP G72-120EP Battery

Alfred Preis is the architect responsible for the memorial's design. The structure has a sagging center and its ends strong and vigorous. It commemorates "initial defeat and ultimate victory" of all lives lost on December 7, 1941.^[109] Although December 7 is known as Pearl Harbor Day, it is not considered a federal holiday in the United States. HP G72-120EV Battery

The nation does however, continue to pay homage remembering the thousands injured and killed when attacked by the Japanese in 1941. Schools and other establishments across the country respectfully lower the American flag to half-staff.^[110] HP G72-120EW Battery

Media

Films set at or around the bombing of Pearl Harbor include:

Remember Pearl Harbor (1942) A Republic Pictures B-movie, starring Don "Red" Barry, one of the first motion pictures to respond to the events.^[111] HP G72-120SD Battery

• Air Force, a 1943 propaganda film depicting the fate of the crew of the Mary-Ann, one of the B-17 Flying Fortress bombers that fly into Hickam Field during the attack.

December 7th, directed by John Ford for the U.S. Navy in 1943, is a film that recreates the attacks of the Japanese forces. HP G72-120SG Battery

• CNN mistakenly ran footage of this as actual attack footage during an entertainment news report in 2003. One film historian believes two documentaries a decade earlier did also.^[112]

From Here to Eternity (1953), an adaptation of the James Jones novel set in Hawaii on the eve of the attack. HP G72-120SO Battery

• In Harm's Way (1965), director Otto Preminger's adaptation of the James Bassett novel, which opens on December 6, 1941, in Hawaii, and depicts the attack from the point of view of the men of a ship able to leave the harbor.

Storm Over the Pacific, also known as Hawai Middouei daikaikusen: HP G72-130 Battery

Taiheiyo no arashi (Hawaii-Midway Battle of the Sea and Sky: Storm in the Pacific Ocean) and I Bombed Pearl Harbor (1961), produced by the Japanese studioToho Company and starring Toshiro Mifune, tells the story of Japanese airmen who served in the Pearl Harbor Raid and the Battle of Midway. HP G72-130ED Battery

• An edited version dubbed into English as I Bombed Pearl Harbor was given U.S. release in 1961.^[111]

Tora! Tora! Tora! (1970), a Japan-U.S. coproduction about the attack is "meticulous"^[113] in its approach to dissecting the situation leading up to the bombing. HP G72-130EG Battery

• It depicts the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor from both American and Japanese points of view, with scrupulous attention to historical fact, including the U.S. use of Magic cryptanalysis.

Pearl (1978), a TV miniseries, written by Stirling Silliphant, about events leading up to the attack. HP G72-130EV Battery

• 1941 (1979), director Steven Spielberg comedy about a panicked Los Angeles immediately after the attack.

The Final Countdown (1980), in which the nuclear aircraft carrier, USS Nimitz travels through time to one day before the attack. HP G72-130SA Battery

The Winds of War, a novel by American writer Herman Wouk, was written between 1963 and 1971. The novel finishes in December 1941 with the aftermath of the attack. The TV miniseries based on the book was produced by Dan Curtis, airing in 1984. HP G72-130SF Battery

• It starred Robert Mitchum and Ali MacGraw, with Ralph Bellamy as President Roosevelt.

Pearl Harbor (2001), directed by Michael Bay, a love story set amidst the lead up to the attack and its aftermath. HP G72-140ED Battery

Non-fiction/historical

The Attack on Pearl Harbor: An Illustrated History by Larry Kimmett and Margaret Regis is a careful recreation of the "Day of Infamy" using maps, photos, unique illustrations, and an animated CD. HP G72-150EF Battery

From the early stages of Japanese planning, through the attack on Battleship Row, to the salvage of the U.S. Pacific fleet, this book provides a detailed overview of the attack.

At Dawn We Slept: The Untold Story of Pearl Harbor by Gordon W. HP G72-251XX Battery

Prange is an extremely comprehensive account of the events leading up to the Pearl Harbor attack and is considered by most scholars to be the best single work about the raid. It is a balanced account that gives both the Japanese and American perspectives. HP G72-260US Battery

Prange spent 37 years researching the book by studying documents about Pearl Harbor and interviewing surviving participants to attempt the most exhaustive account of what happened: the Japanese planning and execution, why US intelligence failed to warn of it, and why a peace agreement was not attained. HP G72-a10SA Battery

The book is the first in the so-called "Prange Trilogy" of Pearl Harbor books co-written with Donald Goldstein and Katherine Dillon, the other two being:

Pearl Harbor: The Verdict of History – a dissection of the various revisionist theories surrounding the attack. HP G72-a20SA Battery

December 7, 1941: The Day The Japanese Attacked Pearl Harbor – a recollection of the attack as narrated by eyewitnesses.

Day of Infamy by Walter Lord was one of the most popular nonfiction accounts of the attack on Pearl Harbor.^[114] HP G72-a30SA Battery

Pearl Harbor: Final Judgment by Henry C. Clausen and Bruce Lee tells of Clausen's top-secret investigation of the events leading up to the Pearl Harbor attack. Much of the information in this book was still classified when previous books were published. HP G72-a40SA Battery

Pearl Harbor Countdown: Admiral James O. Richardson by Skipper Steely is an insightful and detailed account of the events leading up to the attack. Through his comprehensive treatment of the life and times of Admiral James O. Richardson, HP G72-b01EA Battery

Steely explores four decades of American foreign policy, traditional military practice, U.S. intelligence, and the administrative side of the military, exposing the largely untold story of the events leading up to the Japanese attack. HP G72-b01SA Battery

Pearl Harbor Papers: Inside the Japanese Plans, released by Goldstein and Dillon in 1993, used materials from Prange's library to further flesh out the Japanese perspective of the attack, including diaries from some officers and ship logs. HP G72-b02SA Battery

Alternate history

Days of Infamy is a novel by Harry Turtledove in which the Japanese attack on Hawaii is not limited to a strike on Pearl Harbor, but is instead a full-scale invasion and eventual occupation after U.S. forces are driven off the islands (something one of the key planners of the attack, HP G72-b10SA Battery

Commander Minoru Genda wanted but the senior officers realized was impossible).^[115] The many viewpoint characters (a Turtledove trademark) are drawn from Hawaiian civilians (both white and Japanese) as well as soldiers and sailors from both Japan and the USA. HP G72-b15SA Battery

Turtledove has to date written one sequel, The End of the Beginning.

The airstrike and Hawaii-invasion premise of Days of Infamy was earlier used in the first episode of the anime OVA series Konpeki no Kantai. HP G72-b20SA Battery

In the episode, Japan carries out the attack in the early hours of the morning, having perfected night carrier operations. The raid begins with a flare drop by pathfinders. The entire base (including the repair facilities) and a number of supply ships in the harbor are destroyed by daybreak. HP G72 Battery

As for the main body of the Pacific Fleet, the Combined Fleet regroups and annihilates them while they return to Pearl Harbor. The episode, which is divided into three stages in the series' game version, ends with Japanese troops landing at all islands in Hawaii. HP G72 Notebook PC Series Battery,HP G72T-200 CTO Battery,HP G72t Battery