Rain is heaviest in the Otway Ranges and Gippsland

Rain is heaviest in the Otway Ranges and Gippsland in southern Victoria and in the mountainous north-east. SONY Vaio VGN-SZ6RXN/C CPU Fan Snow generally falls only in the mountains and hills in the centre of the state. Rain falls most frequently in winter, but summer precipitation is heavier. Rainfall is most reliable in Gippsland and the Western District, making them both leading farming areas. Victoria's highest recorded daily rainfall was 375 millimetres (14.8 in) at Tanybryn in the Otway Ranges on 22 March 1983. HP Pavilion dv7-2130ev CPU Fan The south-west corner of the state has a Mediterranean climate.^[41] The area was originally heavily forested, including large stands of the karri, one of the tallest trees in the world. This agricultural region of Western Australia is in the top nine terrestrial habitats for terrestrial biodiversity, with a higher proportion ofendemic species than most other equivalent regions. ACER eMachines G520 CPU Fan Thanks to the offshore Leeuwin Current the area numbers in the top six regions for marine biodiversity, containing the most southerly coral reefs in the world. Average annual rainfall varies from 300 mm (12 in) at the edge of the Wheatbelt region to 1,400 mm (55 in) in the wettest areas near Northcliffe, but in the months of November to March evaporation exceeds rainfall, and it is generally very dry. HP Pavilion dv5-2132dx CPU Fan Plants must be adapted to this as well as the extreme poverty of all soils. A major reduction in rainfall has been observed, with a greater number of rainfall events in the summer months. The central four-fifths of the state is semi-arid or desert and is lightly inhabited with the only significant activity being mining. Annual rainfall averages about 200 to 250 mm (8 to 10 in), most of which occurs in sporadic torrential falls related to cyclone events in summer months. Compaq Presario CQ60-307ea CPU Fan An exception to this is the northern tropical regions. The Kimberley has an extremely hot monsoonal climate with average annual rainfall ranging from 500 to 1,500 mm (20 to 59 in), but there is a very long almost rainless season from April to November. Eighty-five percent of the state's runoff occurs in the Kimberley, but because it occurs in violent floods and because of the insurmountable poverty of the generally shallow soils, the only development has taken place along the Ord River. HP Pavilion dv6-2010sa CPU Fan Australia's tropical/subtropical location and cold waters off the western coast make most of Western Australia a hot desert with aridity a marked feature of a greater part of the continent. These cold waters produce precious little moisture needed on the mainland. A 2005 study by Australian and American researchers^[42]investigated the desertification of the interior, and suggested that one explanation was related to human settlers who arrived about 50,000 years ago. Regular burning by these settlers could have prevented monsoons from reaching interior Australia. Toshiba Satellite A40-702 CPU Fan Occurrence of snow in the state is rare, and typically only in the Stirling Range near Albany, as it is the only mountain range far enough south and with sufficient elevation. More rarely, snow can fall on the nearby Porongurup Range. Snow outside these areas is a major event; it usually occurs in hilly areas of south-western Australia. The most widespread low-level snow occurred on 26 June 1956 when snow was reported in the Perth Hills, HP 535442-001 CPU Fan as far north as Wongan Hills and as far east as Salmon Gums. However, even in the Stirling Range, snowfalls rarely exceed 5 cm (2 in) and rarely settle for more than one day.^[43] The highest observed maximum temperature of 50.5 °C (122.9 °F) was recorded at Mardie Station on 19 February 1998. The lowest minimum temperature recorded was−7.2 °C (19.0 °F) at Eyre Bird Observatory on 17 August 2008. HP 535441-001 CPU Fan Climatic factors contribute to Australia's high incidence of bushfires, particularly during the summer months. Low relative humidity, wind and lack of rain can cause a small fire, either man-made or caused naturally by lightning strikes, to spread rapidly over large distances. Low humidity, the heat of the sun and lack of water cause vegetation to dry out becoming a perfect fuel for the fire. HP 535439-001 CPU Fan High winds fan the flames, increasing their intensity and the speed and distance at which they can travel.^[44] Many of the worst bushfires in eastern Australia, such as the 1983 Ash Wednesday fires, accompany El Niño-Southern Oscillation events which tend to cause a warm, dry and windy climate.^[45] The worst bushfires in Australian history occurred on Black Saturday in February 2009. HP 535438-001 CPU Fan The human death toll of the disaster was 173, and over 2000 homes were lost. Though Australia is generally dry and arid, a large portion of the country lives in the tropics. Rainfall in these areas is extremely heavy. With some are areas recording world record breaking rain, such as the mountains which lie to the south west of Cairns. HP 533736-001 CPU Fan Through La Niña years the eastern seaboard of Australia records above average rainfall usually creating damaging floods.The 2010–2011 La Nina system has broken many rainfall records in Australia, particularly in the states of Queensland and New South Wales, which have seen extensive flooding which has caused major damage to infrastructure and crops. IBM 13R2760 CPU Fan The central east area of Queensland, an area the size of Germany and France combined, was under water in 2010–2011. The estimated damage bill could reach into the billions. According to the majority of scientists, climate change is predicted by the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO)^[47] to have significant effects on the climate of and extreme weather events in Australia. ACER LU.S040A.067 CPU Fan According to the Bureau of Meteorology, Australia’s annual mean temperature for 2009 was 0.90 °C (1.62 °F) above the 1961-90 average, making it the nation’s second warmest year since high-quality records began in 1910.^[48] It is predicted that the Great Barrier Reef and reefs surrounding Lord Howe Island could be killed as a result of the rise in water temperature forecast by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fourth Assessment Report. ACER LU.S050B.078 CPU Fan The Murray River, Darling River Coorong andMacquarie Marshes are all at risk from decreased rainfall from climate change.Coastal communities face risks from sea level rise, albeit over a long period of time based on current estimates of the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report. The Gold Coast, being built on sand and with many canal developments, could be considered particularly at risk. DELL Studio 1535 CPU Fan Suburbs of Sydney like Drummoyne and Concord on rivers like the Parramatta River face risks of inundation of low lying areas such as parks (such as Timbrell Park and Majors Bay Reserve) reclaimed from mudflats at the heads of bays, or massive expenses in rebuilding seawalls to higher levels. Currently, there are several environmental movements and campaigners advocating for action on climate change. HP Pavilion dv6736nr CPU Fan One such campaign is "The Big Switch", Australia's largest community climate change campaign. Drought in Australia is defined by rainfall over a three-month period being in the lowest ten percent of amounts having been recorded for that region in the past.^[51] This definition takes into account that low rainfall is a relative term and rainfall deficiencies need to be compared to typical rainfall patterns including seasonal variations. HP Envy 15-1050ca CPU Fan Specifically drought in Australia is defined in relation to a rainfall deficiency of pastoral leases and is determined by decile analysis applied to a certain area.^[52] Historical climatic records are now sufficiently reliable to profile climate variability taking into account expectations for regions.^[53] State Governments are responsible for declaring a region drought affected and the declaration will take into account factors other than rainfall. HP Pavilion dv7-6100et CPU Fan Australia is affected by tropical cyclones which primarily occur between December and April but have developed in November and May, as well.^[54] Cyclones over mainland Australia occur on average five to six times each year.^[4] The region between Broome andExmouth are most prone to cyclones.^[55] Tropical cyclones are known to bring destructive winds, heavy rain with flooding creating storm surges along the coast, causing inundation in low lying areas. APPLE 661-4951 CPU Fan The strongest Australian region cyclone was Cyclone Monica in 2006 which had wind gusts in excess of 350 km/h (220 mph). Cyclones can also move inland, decaying to a rain depression, which dump heavy rain in these areas and causing flooding.^[56] The worst cyclones of Australia have caused billions of dollars of damage and many deaths. IBM 42W2403 CPU Fan Cyclone Tracy crossed directly over Darwin in 1974, 71 people were killed. Adjusted for inflation it was Australia's most damaging cyclone.^[57] Cyclone Mahina in 1899 brought a storm surge to Far North Queensland reaching 13 m (43 ft) high, causing 400 deaths and making it the worst natural disaster to befall Australia.^[58] ACER Aspire 9304WSMi CPU Fan Cyclone Larry struck North Queensland and passed over Innisfail in 2006 causing damages estimated at A$1.5 billion but no lives were lost. Cyclone Yasi caused severe flooding and had a total estimated cost of A$3.5 billion making it the second most costliest cyclone to strike Australia. Blizzards are not common in mainland Australia, but occur frequently in the Snowy Mountains in New South Wales and Victoria.HP 610773-001 CPU Fan When blizzards do occur, they can affect the Tasmanian Highlands and, particularly, Mount Wellington, which towers over the Tasmanian capital Hobart. Blizzards do not affect any major towns or cities, because there are no populated areas located in the mountains except for the ski resort towns of New South Wales and Victoria. A dust storm or sandstorm, a meteorological phenomenon common in arid and semi-arid regions, IBM ThinkPad R50p 1830 CPU Fan arises when a gust front passes or when the wind force exceeds the threshold value where loose sand and dust are removed from the dry surface. Particles are transported by saltation and suspension, causing soil erosion from one place and deposition in another. The term sandstorm is usedmost often in the context of desert sandstorms, especially in the Sahara, IBM ThinkPad T61 8898 CPU Fan when, in addition to fine particles obscuring visibility, a considerable amount of larger sand particles moves closer to the surface. The term dust storm is more likely to be used when finer particles are blown long distances, especially when the dust storm affects urban areas. Environmental issues in Australia describes a number of environmental issues which affect theenvironment of Australia.IBM ThinkPad R50p 2889 CPU Fan There are a range of such issues, some of them relating to conservation in Australia while others, for example the deteriorating state of Murray-Darling Basin, have a direct and serious effect on human land use and the economy. Many human activities including the use of natural resources have a direct impact on the Australianenvironment. These issues are the primary concern of the environmental movement in Australia. IBM ThinkPad R50p 1830 CPU Fan Climate change is now a major political talking point in Australia in the last two decades. Persistent drought and resulting water restrictions during the first decade of the twenty-first century are an example of natural events attributed by the mainstream media to climate change.^[1][2][3][4] Australia ranks within the top ten countries globally with respect to greenhouse gas emissions per capita.^[5] IBM ThinkPad R50 1829 CPU Fan The current federal and state governments have all publicly stated their belief that climate change is being caused by anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions. Vocal minority groups within the population campaign against mining and coal-fired power stations in Australia, and such demonstrations are widely reported by the mainstream media. Similarly, vocal minority groups concurrently oppose wind energy schemes, despite being 'carbon neutral', on the grounds of local visual an.IBM ThinkPad R50P CPU Fan d noise impact and concern for the currently high cost and low reliability of wind energy.^[6][7][8] Despite the publication of the Garnaut report and the Green Paper on the proposed Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme, public belief in anthropogenic climate change has noticeably eroded following the leaking of e-mails from the University of East Anglia's Climate Research Unit.^[9][10] IBM Thinkpad W500 CPU Fan There is claimed to be a net benefit to Australia in stabilising greenhouse gases in the atmosphere at 450ppm CO₂ eq^[11] in line with the prevailing political stance. Public disagreement with this opinion is generally dismissed as expression of vested interests, for example from the coal industry. Australia is a major exporter and consumer of coal, the combustion of which liberates CO₂. Compaq Presario CQ41-206TU CPU Fan Consequently, in 2003 Australia was the eighth highest emitter of CO₂gases per capita in the world liberating 16.5 tonnes per capita.^[12] Australia is claimed to be one of the countries most at risk from climate change according to the Stern report. Most of Australia's demand for electricity depends upon coal-fired thermal generation,^[13]  SONY Vaio VPC-EB4X1E/BQ CPU Fan owing to the plentiful indigenous coal supply, limited potential for hydro-electric generation and political unwillingness to exploit indigenous uranium resources (although Australia accounted for the world's second highest production of uranium in 2005 ^[14]) to fuel a 'carbon neutral' domestic nuclear energy program. Conservation in Australia is an issue of state and federal policy. HP G62-374CA CPU Fan Australia is one of the most biologically diverse countries in the world, with a large portion of species endemic to Australia. Preserving this wealth of biodiversity is important for future generations. A key conservation issue is the preservation of biodiversity, especially by protecting the remaining rainforests. The destruction of habitat by human activities, including land clearing, remains the major cause of biodiversity loss in Australia. HP Pavilion dv5-1203eg CPU Fan The importance of the Australian rainforests to the conservation movement is very high. Australia is the only western country to have large areas of rainforest intact. Forests provide timber, drugs, and food and should be managed to maximize the possible uses. Currently, there are a number of environmental movements and campaigners advocating for action on saving the environment, one such campaign is the Big Switch and I Love Earth. TOSHIBA Satellite L300 CPU Fan Land management issues including clearance of native vegetation, reafforestation of once-cleared areas, control of exotic weeds and pests, expansion of dryland salinity, and changed fire regimes. Intensification of resource use in sectors such as forestry, fisheries, and agriculture are widely reported to contribute to biodiversity loss in Australia. HP G62-a10EJ CPU Fan Coastal and marine environments also have reduced biodiversity from reduced water quality caused by pollution and sediments arising from human settlements and agriculture. In central New South Wales where there are large plains of grassland, problems have risen from—unusual to say—lack of land clearing. HP 535766-001 CPU Fan The Daintree Rainforest, a tropical rainforest near Daintree, Queensland covering around 1200 square kilometres, is threatened by logging, development, mining and the effects of the high tourist numbers. Dell MF60100V1-Q000-G99 CPU Fan Over a hundred species of fauna are currently under serious threat of extinction. The plight of some of these species receives more attention than others and recently the focus of many conservation organisations has been the critically endangered Northern Hairy-nosed Wombat, the endangered Tasmanian Devil,^[16] Northern Tiger Quoll, South Eastern Red-tailed Black Cockatoo, Southern Cassowary, Tasmanian Wedge-tailed Eagle, Leadbeater's Possum and Southern Corroboree frog. DELL R859C CPU Fan Australia has a poor record of conservation of native fauna. The extinction of Australian megafauna is attributed to the arrival of humans and since European settlement, 23 birds, 4 frogs, and 27 mammal species are also known to have become extinct. One of the notable issues with marine conservation in Australia is the protection of the Great Barrier Reef. Toshiba Satellite A105-S2101 CPU Fan The Great Barrier Reef's environmental pressures include water quality from runoff, climate change and mass coral bleaching, cyclic outbreaks of the crown-of-thorns starfish, overfishing, and shipping accidents. While there have been no oil spill environmental disasters of the scale of the Exxon Valdez in the country, Australia has a large oil industry and there have been several large oil spills [1]. Spills remain a serious threat to the marine environment and Australian coastline. SONY Vaio VGN-FW140E CPU Fan The largest spill to date was the Kirki tanker in 1991 which dropped 17,280 tonnes of oil off the coast of Western Australia.In March 2009, the 2009 southeast Queensland oil spill occurred, where 200,000 litres were spilled from the MV Pacific Adventurer spilling more than 250 tonnes of oil, 30 tonnes of fuel and other toxic chemicals on Brisbane's suburban beaches.ACER Aspire 5730Z CPU Fan Premier Anna Bligh described the spill as "worst environmental disaster Queensland has ever seen". A serious issue to the Australian marine environment is the dumping of rubbish from ships. There have been a number of cases,^[19] particularly involving the navy of Australian and other countries polluting Australian waters including the dumping of chemical warfare agents. SONY Vaio VPC-EB4S1E/WI CPU Fan Recently documented cases include the aircraft carrier USS Ronald Reagan in 2006 which was found to be dumping rubbish off the shores of Moreton Island.^[20] In Victoria, a large number of toxic drums containing 1,2-Dichlorobenzene xylenol, a substance very toxic to aquatic creatures washed up on beaches during May 2009 presumably fallen off a passing container ship.HP Pavilion dv9580ed CPU Fan Australia's geographical isolation has resulted in the evolution of many delicate ecological relationships that are sensitive to foreign invaders and in many instances provided no natural predators for many of the species subsequently introduced. Introduced plants that have caused widespread problems are lantana and the prickly pear bush. HP 538340-001 CPU Fan The introduction and spread of animals such as the cane toad or rabbit can disrupt the existing balances between populations and develop into environmental problems. The introduction of cattle into Australia and to a lesser extent the dingo, are other examples of species that have changed the landscape. Toshiba Satellite L305D-S5934 CPU Fan In some cases the introduction of new species can lead to plagues and the extinction of endemic species. The introduced species red fox has single-handedly caused the extinction of several species. Tasmania takes the threat of red fox introduction so seriously that it has a government sponsored taskforce to prevent fox populations from taking hold on the island. SONY Vaio VGN-CR31S/P CPU Fan In the prehistory of Australia the indigenous Australians used fire-stick farming which was an early form of land clearing which caused long term changes to the ecology. With European colonisation land clearing continued on a larger scale for agriculture - particularly for cattle, cotton and wheat production. Since European settlement a total of 13% of native vegetation cover has been lost. HP Pavilion dv5-1210et CPU Fan The extinction of 20 different mammals, 9 bird and 97 plant species have been partially attributed to land clearing. Land clearing is a major source of Australia’s greenhouse gas emissions, and contributed to approximately 12 percent of Australia’s total emissions in 1998. The consequences of land clearing include dryland salinity and soil erosion. These are a major concern to the landcare movement in Australia. SONY Vaio VGN-FW465J/B CPU Fan The clearing of native vegetation is controlled by Federal laws (indirectly), State law and local planning instruments. The precise details of regulation of vegetation clearing differ according to the location where clearing is proposed. Australia is one of the most urbanized countries in the world. Many Australian cities have large urban footprints and are characterised by an unsustainable low density urban sprawl. HP Envy 15 CPU Fan This places demand on infrastructure and services which contributes to the problems of land clearing, pollution, transport related emissions, energy consumption, invasive species,automobile dependency and urban heat islands. The urban sprawl continues to increase at a rapid rate in most Australian cities, particularly the state capital cities, all of which (with the exception of Hobart) are metropoleis. HP Pavilion dv7-1190er CPU Fan In some centres, such as Sydney and Greater Western Sydney,^[22]Greater Melbourne^[23] and South East Queensland^[24] large metropolitan conurbations threaten to extend for hundreds of kilometres and based on current population growth rates are expected to become megacities in the 21st century. Most Australian cities population growth is a result of migration in contrast to the Birth rate and fertility rate in Australia, which is contributing to the ongoing trend of urbanisation. Toshiba Satellite A105-S4074 CPU Fan In recent years, some cities have implemented transit-oriented development strategies to curb the urban sprawl. Notable examples include Melbourne 2030,^[25] South East Queensland Regional Plan and the Sydney Metropolitan Strategy. There are also population decentralisation programs at state and federal levels aimed at shifting populations out of the major centres and stemming the drivers to rapid urbanisation.  IBM MCF-208AM05-1 CPU Fan Albury-Wodonga was part of the federal government's program of decentralisation begun in the 1970s, which has at times had relocation policies for immigration. The Victorian government has run a decentralisation program since the 1960s, having had a ministerial position appointed and ongoing promotional and investment programs for stimulating growth in Regional Victoria.IBM MCF-217PAM05 CPU Fan  HP GB0507PGV1-A CPU Fan IBM MCF-217PAM05 CPU Fan However policy has swung over the decades, primarily due to local development priorities and agendas and a lack of federal co-ordination to the problem. The protection of waterways in Australia is a major concern for various reasons including habitat and biodiversity, but also due to use of the waterways by humans. The Murray-Darling Basin is under threat due to irrigation in Australia, causing high levels of salinity which affect agriculture and biodiversity in New South Wales, HP Pavilion dv6-3385la CPU Fan Victoria and South Australia. These rivers are also affected by pesticide run-off and drought. Sustainable waste management is significant problem in Australia, and serious issues include large quantities of e-waste and toxic waste going into landfill. Australia does not have restrictions on the dumping of toxic materials that are common in other countries, such as dumping Cathode Ray Tubes which leech heavy metals into water catchments. HP Pavilion tx2510us  CPU  Fan Due to the lack of sufficient sites for toxic waste disposal large quantities of toxic waste are trucked between states to remote dumping grounds or exported overseas in ships. HP G62-b55EV CPU Fan,HP Pavilion dv6-2145sf CPU Fan,HP Pavilion dv7-1120ew CPU Fan

During the 19th century, large areas

During the 19th century, large areas were successively separated to form the colonies of Tasmania (established as a separate colony named Van Diemen's Land in 1825), South Australia (1836), New Zealand (1840),^[3] Victoria (1851) and Queensland (1859). The Swan River Colony (present-day city of Perth) was established in Western Australia in 1829. SONY Vaio VPC-EA46FM/B CPU Fan On Federation, the six colonies of New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland, South Australia, Western Australia, and Tasmania became original states of the new Commonwealth of Australia. Legislative powers of the States are protected by the Australian constitution, and under the principle of federalism Commonwealth legislation only applies to the states where permitted by the constitution. Toshiba Satellite L500-1XL CPU Fan The territories, by contrast, are from a constitutional perspective directly subject to the Commonwealth government. The Australian Parliament has powers to legislate in the territories that it does not possess in the states. Most of the territories are directly administered by the Commonwealth Government, while three (the Northern Territory, the Australian Capital Territory and Norfolk Island) administer themselves. HP Mini 110-3000sd CPU Fan In the self-governing territories, the Australian Parliament retains the full power to legislate, and can override laws made by the territorial institutions, which it has done on rare occasions. For the purposes of Australian (and joint Australia-New Zealand) intergovernmental bodies, the Northern Territory and the Australian Capital Territory are treated as states. HP Pavilion dv7-3162nr CPU Fan Furthermore, the distribution of powers between the Commonwealth and the territories is different from that between the Commonwealth and the states. In the Northern Territory, the Commonwealth retains the power to directly administer uranium mining and Aboriginal lands – powers which it does not possess with respect to the states. HP 480481-001 CPU Fan Each state has a Governor, appointed by the Queen, which by convention she does on the advice of the state Premier. The Administrators of the Northern Territory and Norfolk Island are, by contrast, appointed by the Governor-General. The Australian Capital Territory has neither a Governor nor an Administrator, but the Governor-General exercises some powers that in other jurisdictions are exercised by the Governor of a state or Administrator of a territory, such as the power to dissolve the Legislative Assembly. HP 622029-001 CPU Fan Jervis Bay Territory is unique in being the only non-self-governing territory that was an internal territory. Until 1989, it was administered as if it were a part of the ACT, although it has always been a separate territory. Under the terms of the Jervis Bay Territory Acceptance Act, the laws of the ACT apply to the Jervis Bay Territory insofar as they are applicable and providing they are not inconsistent with an Ordinance.^[4] Toshiba Satellite L555-12P CPU Fan Although residents of the Jervis Bay Territory are generally subject to laws made by the ACT Legislative Assembly, they are not represented in the Assembly. They are represented in the Parliament of Australia as part of the Electoral Division of Fraser in the ACT and by the ACT's two Senators. In other respects, the territory is administered directly by the Federal Government through the Territories portfolio. HP GB0507PGV1-A CPU Fan Each state has a bicameral parliament except Queensland, which abolished its upper house in 1922. The lower house is called the Legislative Assembly, except in South Australia and Tasmania, where it is called the House of Assembly. Tasmania is the only state to use proportional representation for elections to its lower house; all others elect members from single member constituencies, using preferential voting. SONY Vaio VGN-AR21B CPU Fan The upper house is called the Legislative Council and is generally elected from multi-member constituencies using proportional representation. The three self-governing territories, the ACT, the Northern Territory, and Norfolk Island, have unicameral Legislative Assemblies. The head of government of each state is called the Premier, appointed by the state's Governor. SONY Vaio VPC-EB3E1E/PI CPU Fan In normal circumstances, the Governor will appoint as Premier whoever leads the party or coalition which exercises control of the lower house (in the case of Queensland, the only house) of the state Parliament. However, in times of constitutional crisis, the Governor can appoint someone else as Premier. The head of government of the self-governing internal territories is called the Chief Minister. SONY Vaio VPC-EB3E1E/WI CPU Fan The Northern Territory's Chief Minister, in normal circumstances whoever controls the Legislative Assembly, is appointed by the Administrator. The climate of Australia varies widely due to its large geographical size, but by far the largest part of Australia is desert or semi-arid. Only the south-east and south-west corners have atemperate climate and moderately fertile soil. SONY Vaio VGN-FS660/W CPU Fan The northern part of the country has a tropical climate, varied between tropical rainforests, grasslands, part desert. Australia's climate is ruled by the hot, sinking air of the subtropical high pressure belt which moves north and south with the seasons. This causes the rainfall pattern over Australia to be highly seasonal. HP Pavilion G61-631NR CPU Fan Australia's rainfall is the lowest of the seven continents (besides Antarctica). Rainfall is variable, with frequent droughts lasting several seasons and is thought to be caused in part by the El Niño-Southern Oscillation. Since it is a small continent separated from polar regions by the Southern Ocean, Australia does not get the harsh snaps of polar air that swarm over Northern Hemisphere continents during winter. HP Pavilion dv6560el CPU Fan The continents in the Northern Hemisphere have a considerable temperature contrast between summer and winter, whereas in Australia the temperature contrast is small. In many parts of the country, seasonal high and lows can be great with temperatures ranging from above 50 °C (122 °F) to well below zero. Minimum temperatures are moderated by the lack of mountains and the influence of surrounding oceans. HP Pavilion dv6-2128ca CPU Fan The El Niño-Southern Oscillation is associated to seasonal abnormality in many areas in the world, though Australia is one of the most affected continents, which experiences extensive droughtsalongside with considerable wet periods. Occasionally a dust storm will blanket a region and there are reports of the occasional tornado. Tropical cyclones, heat waves, bushfires and frosts in the country are also associated to the Southern Oscillation. HP Pavilion dv7-3004el CPU Fan Rising levels of salinity anddesertification in some areas is ravaging the landscape. Temperatures in Australia have followed an increasing trend between the years of 1910 to 2004 by approximately 0.7°C. Overnight minimum temperatures have warmed more rapidly than daytime maximum temperatures in recent years. The late-20th century warming has been largely attributed to the increased greenhouse effect. HP Pavilion dv7-4050ev CPU Fan  ^[1] According to the Bureau of Meteorology, 80% of the land have a rainfall less than 600 mm (24 in) per year and 50% having even less than 300 mm (12 in).^[2] As a whole, Australia has an annual average rainfall of 419 mm (16 in). The rainfall patterns across Australia are highly seasonal. It however rains more in winter than in summer by approximately 11%, and compared to the Earth's other continental landmasses Australia is very dry. HP G42-367TU CPU Fan More than 80% of the continent has an annual rainfall of less than 600 mm (24 in); only Antarctica receives less rainfall than Australia.^[4] A place inland near Lake Eyre (in South Australia) would only receive 81 mm (3 in) of rain annually.^[5] Another place,Troudaninna Bore (coordinates : 29° 11' 44" S, 138° 59' 28" E, altitude : 46 m) in South Australia, from 1893 to 1936, received, in average, 104.9 mm (4.13 inches) of precipitation.^[6] HP Pavilion dv5-1172el CPU Fan From one extreme to another, parts of the far North Queensland coast annually average over 4,000 mm (157 in), with the Australian annual record being 12,461 mm (491 in), set at the summit of Mount Bellenden Ker in 2000. The average annual rainfall in the Australian desert is low, ranging from 81 to 250 mm (3 to 10 in) per year. Toshiba Satellite A105-S4084 CPU Fan Thunderstorms are relatively common in the region, with an average of 15 - 20 thunderstorms per annum.^[7] Summer daytime temperatures range from 32 to 40 °C (90 to 104 °F). In winter, this falls to 18 to 23 °C (64 to 73 °F). The southern parts of Australia get the usual westerly winds and cold fronts that come with rain when the high pressure systems move towards northern Australian during winter. HP Pavilion dv4-1038tx CPU Fan Cold snaps may bring frosts inland, though temperatures near the coast are almost mild all year round. Summers in southern Australia are generally dry and hot with coastal sea breezes. During a lengthy dry spell, hot and dry winds from the interior can cause bushfires in some of southern and eastern states, though most commonly Victoria and New South Wales. HP Pavilion dv7-3060sb CPU Fan The tropical areas of northern Australia have a wet summer because of monsoon presence. During "the wet", typically October to April, humid north-westerly winds bring showers and thunderstorms. In occasional cases, tropical cyclones can bring heavy rainfall to tropical coastal regions, which are also likely to reach further inland. After the monsoonal season, the dry season comes ("winter"), which mostly brings clear skies and mild conditions. HP Pavilion dv7-6055sf CPU Fan Low rate of evaporation from this very cool body of water result in little evaporation occurring. As a result, rain clouds are sparsely formed and very rarely do they form long enough for a continuous period of rain to be recorded. Australia's arid/semi-arid zone extends to this region. The absence of any significant mountain range or area of substantial height above sea level, results in very little rainfall caused by orographic uplift. SONY VGN-CS108D  CPU Fan In the east the Great Dividing Rangelimits rain moving into inland Australia. Australia has a compact shape and no significant bodies of water penetrate very far inland. This is important because it means that moist winds are prevented from penetrating to inland Australia, keeping rainfall low. In Australia, snow falls on the highlands near the east coast, in the states of Victoria, New South Wales and Tasmania and the Australian Capital Territory. DELL XPS M170 CPU Fan There is a regular snow season in several areas which have seasonal ski tourism industries. Sometimes snow has even been reported in the mountains of South Australia, Western Australia and Queensland, though this is rare. Snow at sea level is occasionally recorded on mainland Australia, but is more frequent in Tasmania where snowfalls at sea level can occur during the winter months. Snow has been recorded across most of Tasmania, HP Pavilion G72-b15SV CPU Fan though it is rare on the northern coast at sea level. Snow is rare in the southernmost capitals like Melbourne and Hobart, falling less than once every ten years, and in the other capitals it is unknown (however snow has fallen in the hill suburbs of Perth and Adelaide). However, there are extensive, well-developed ski fields in the Great Dividing Range, a few hours' drive from Melbourne and Sydney.^[9] HP G62-120ES CPU Fan The occasional cold snap, caused by cold air drifting north from Antarctica, can cause significant snowfall in rural areas, as well as major cities such as Hobart, Melbourne's outer mountain suburbs and Canberra. Such occasions are rare, but have occurred in 1951, 1986 and 2005. Because of its elevation (650 m (2,130 ft)) and distance from the coast, HP Pavilion dv6-3034ss   CPU   Fan the Australian Capital Territory experiences a continental climate, unlike many other Australian cities whose climates are moderated by the sea.^[11] Canberra is notorious for hot, dry summers, and cold winters with occasional fog and frequent frosts. Many of the higher mountains in the territory’s south-west are snow-covered for at least part of the winter. HP Pavilion dv7-3165ef  CPU Fan Thunderstorms can occur between October and March, and annual rainfall is 623 mm (25 in), with rainfall highest in spring and summer and lowest in winter The highest maximum temperature recorded in the ACT was 42.8 °C (109.0 °F) at Acton on 11 January 1939. The lowest minimum temperature was −14.6 °C (5.7 °F)at Gudgenby on 11 July 1971. HP X16-1000 Series CPU Fan Over half of New South Wales has an arid or semi-arid climate. However, the eastern portion has a temperate climate, ranging from humid subtropical to theCentral Coast and most of Sydney, and oceanic to the south coast. The Snowy Mountains region in the south-east falls in the alpine climate/highland climate zone, with cool to cold weather all year around and snowfalls in the winter. IBM ThinkPad Z61m  CPU Fan Further inland, the climate gets semi-arid and a desert climate towards the western part of the state. The weather in the south of the state is generally hot in summer and cool in the winter as the seasons are well-defined in the south. The hottest New South Wales Climate region is the north-west part of the state, seasons are not well-defined in the north, where summers are hot and can be wet and winters are cooler and drier. ACER Aspire One D250 CPU Fan The coldest region is the Snowy Mountains where the snow and frost continues for quite long durations during the winter months.The highest maximum temperature recorded was 49.8 °C (121.6 °F) at Menindee in the state's west on 10 January 1939. The lowest minimum temperature was −23 °C(−9.4 °F) at Charlotte Pass on 29 June 1994 in the Snowy Mountains. ACER Ferrari 4000 CPU Fan This is also the lowest temperature recorded in the whole of Australia excluding Australian Antarctic Territory.^[13] Rainfall varies throughout the state. The far north-west receives the least, less than 180 mm (7 in) annually, while the east receives between 600 to 1,200 mm (24 to 47 in) of rain. The Northern Territory has two distinctive climate zones. HP G42-367TU CPU Fan The northern end, including Darwin, has a tropical savanna climate (Köppen Aw)^[22] with high humidity and two seasons, the wet (November to April) and dry season (May to October). During the dry season nearly every day is warm and sunny, and afternoon humidity averages around 30%. There is very little rainfall between May and September. Toshiba Satellite L350-146 CPU Fan In the coolest months of June and July, the daily minimum temperature may dip as low as 14 °C (57 °F), but very rarely lower, and frost has never been recorded.The wet season is associated with tropical cyclones and monsoon rains. The majority of rainfall occurs between December and March (the Southern Hemisphere summer), when thunderstorms are common and afternoon relative humidity averages over 70% during the wettest months. HP Pavilion dv7-3131ez CPU Fan On average more than 1,570 mm (62 in) of rain falls in the north. Thunderstorms can produce spectacular lightning displaysThe central region is the desert centre of the country, which includes Alice Springs and Uluru, and is semi-arid with little rain usually falling during the hottest months from October to March. Central Australia receives less than 250 mm (10 in) of rain per year. Dell Vostro 3450 CPU Fan The highest maximum temperature recorded in the territory was 48.3 °C (118.9 °F) at Finke on 1 and 2 January 1960. The lowest minimum temperature was −7.5 °C(18.5 °F) at Alice Springs on 12 July 1976. Because of its size, there is significant variation in climate across the state. Low rainfall and hot summers are typical for the inland west, a monsoonal 'wet' season in the far north, and warm temperate conditions along the coastal strip. SONY Vaio VGN-CR23/N CPU Fan Inland and in southern ranges low minimum temperatures are experienced. The climate of the coastal strip is influenced by warm ocean waters, keeping the region free from extremes of temperature and providing moisture for rainfall.However, most of the Queensland populace experience two weather seasons: a "winter" period of rather warm temperatures and minimal rainfall and a sultry summer period of hot, sticky temperatures and higher levels of rainfall. HP Pavilion dv6-3043tx CPU Fan The highest maximum temperature observed in the state is 49.5 °C (121.1 °F) at Birdsville on 24 December 1972. The temperature of 53.1 °C (127.6 °F) atCloncurry on 16 January 1889 is not considered official; the figure quoted from Birdsville is the next highest, so that record is considered as being official. The lowest minimum temperature is −10.6 °C (12.9 °F) at Stanthorpe on 23 June 1961 and at The Hermitage on 12 July 1965. HP Pavilion dv6-3163eo CPU Fan The majority of the state has the arid and semi-arid climates. The southern coastal parts of the state have a Mediterranean climate with mild wet winters and hot dry summers. The highest rainfall occurs along the southern coasts and the Mount Lofty Ranges (with an average annual rainfall of 1,200 millimetres (47 in) in the vicinity of Mount Lofty); HP Pavilion dv7-1003eo CPU Fan the lowest rainfall occurs in the Lake Eyre basin where the average annual totals are less than 150 millimetres (6 in) and possibly even 100 millimetres (4 in). Most of the rain in the southern districts of the State fall during the winter months when the sub-tropical high-pressure belt is displaced to the north over the Australian continent.^[25] South Australia's mean temperature range is 29 °C (84 °F) in January and 15 °C (59 °F) in July. Dell Vostro 3450 CPU Fan Daily temperatures in parts of the state in January and February can be up to 48 °C (118 °F). The highest maximum temperature was recorded as 50.7 °C (123.3 °F) at Oodnadatta on 2 January 1960, which is the highest official temperature recorded in Australia. The lowest minimum temperature was −8 °C (17.6 °F) at Yongala on 20 July 1976. Tasmania has a cool temperate climate with four distinct seasons.  HP Pavilion dv7-3067nr CPU Fan Summer lasts from December to February when the average maximum sea temperature is 21 °C(70 °F) and inland areas around Launceston reach 24 °C (75 °F). Other inland areas are much cooler with Liawenee, located on the Central Plateau, one of the coldest places in Australia with temperatures in February ranging between 4 to 17 °C (39 to 63 °F). SONY Vaio VGN-CR23/N CPU Fan Autumn lasts between March and May and experiences changeable weather, where summer weather patterns gradually take on the shape of winter patterns. The winter months are between June and July and are generally the wettest and coolest months in the state, with most high lying areas receiving considerable snowfall. HP Pavilion dv7-1129wm CPU Fan Winter maximums are 12 °C (54 °F) on average along coastal areas and 3 °C(37 °F) on the Central Plateau, thanks to a series of cold fronts from the Southern Ocean.^[27] Spring is a season of transition, where winter weather patterns begin to take the shape of summer patterns, with snowfall still common up until October. Spring is generally the windiest time of the year with afternoon sea breezes starting to take effect on the coast. HP Pavilion G72-b15EV CPU Fan Rainfall in Tasmania follows a complicated pattern rather analogous to that found on large continents at the same latitude in the Northern Hemisphere. On the western side rainfall increases from around 1,458 mm (57 in) at Strahan on the coast up to 2,690 mm (106 in) at Cradle Valley in the highlands.^[28] There is a strong winter maximum in rainfall: January and February typically averages between 30-40% the rainfall of July and August, Compaq Presario CQ60-417DX CPU Fan though even in the driest months rain usually falls on every second day and the number of rainy days per year is much greater than on any part of the Australian mainland. Further east in the Lake Country, annual rainfall declines to around 900 mm (35 in), whilst in the Midlands, annual rainfall is as low as 450 mm (18 in) at Ross and generally below 600 mm (24 in). HP Pavilion dv7-3080eg CPU Fan The eastern part of Tasmania has more evenly distributed rainfall than in the west, and most months receive very similar averages.The densely populated northern coast is much drier than the western side, with annual rainfall ranging from 666 mm (26 in) in Launceston to 955 mm (38 in) in Burnie in the north west and 993 mm (39 in) in Scottsdale located further to the east.^[29][3HP Pavilion dv9233ca CPU Fan ^0]Most rain falls in winter, and in summer the average can be as low as 31 mm (1 in) per month in Launceston. The east coast is wetter than the Midlands, with an average annual rainfall ranging from 775 mm (31 in) in St. Helens to around 640 mm (25 in) in Swansea.^[31][32] Here the rainfall is evenly distributed over the year but can be very erratic as heavy rainfalls from the warm Tasman Sea are quite frequent. HP Envy 14-1195la CPU Fan Whereas a three-day fall of 125 mm (5 in) occurs only once every fifty years on the north coast, it occurs on average once every four or five years around Swansea and Bicheno, and on 7–8 June 1954, there were many falls as large as 230 mm (9 in) in two days in that area. The east coast is sometimes called the "sun coast" because of its sunny climate.^[33] HP Pavilion dv6-2115sf CPU Fan Several sections of inland Tasmania, together with Flinders Island, were declared drought-affected areas by the state government in 2007.^[34] The highest recorded maximum temperature in Tasmania was 42.2 °C (108.0 °F) at Scamander on 30 January 2009, during the 2009 south-eastern Australia heat wave. Tasmania's lowest recorded minimum temperature was −13 °C (8.6 °F) on 30 June 1983, at Butlers Gorge, Shannon, and Tarraleah. HP Pavilion dv7-3067nr CPU Fan Victoria has a varied climate despite its small size. It ranges from semi-arid and hot in the north-west, to temperate and cool along the coast. Victoria's main land feature, the Great Dividing Range, produces a cooler, mountain climate in the centre of the state. Victoria's southernmost position on the Australian mainland means it is cooler and wetter than other mainland states and territories. HP Pavilion dv7-1129wm CPU FanThe coastal plain south of the Great Dividing Range has Victoria's mildest climate. Air from the Southern Ocean helps reduce the heat of summer and the cold of winter. Melbourne and other large cities are located in this temperate region. The Mallee and upper Wimmera are Victoria's warmest regions with hot winds blowing from nearby deserts. Average temperatures top 30 °C (86 °F) during summer and 15 °C (59 °F) in winter. Victoria's highest maximum temperature of 48.8 °C (119.8 °F) was recorded in Hopetoun on 7 February 2009, during the 2009 south-eastern Australia heat wave.^[13] A screen temperature of 50.7 °C (123.3 °F) was recorded on 7 January 1906 inMildura.^[39][40] HP Pavilion G72-b15EV CPU Fan The Victorian Alps in the north-east are the coldest part of Victoria. The Alps are part of the Great Dividing Range mountain system extending east-west through the centre of Victoria. Average temperatures are less than 9 °C(48 °F) in winter and below 0 °C (32 °F) in the highest parts of the ranges. The state's lowest minimum temperature of −11.7 °C (10.9 °F) was recorded at Omeo on 13 June 1965, and again at Falls Creek on 3 July 1970. HP Pavilion dv6-2140se CPU Fan Victoria is the wettest Australian state after Tasmania. Rainfall in Victoria increases from north to south, with higher averages in areas of high altitude. Median annual rainfall exceeds 1,800 mm (71 in) in some parts of the north-east but is less than 250 millimetres (10 in) in the Mallee.

Geography of Australia

http://www.all-laptopfan.com/,http://www.all-keyboard.com/ The geography of Australia encompasses a wide variety of biogeographic regions being the world's smallest continentbut the sixth-largest country in the world. The population of Australia is concentrated along the eastern and southeastern coasts. The geography of the country is extremely diverse, ranging from the snow-capped mountains of theAustralian Alps and Tasmania to large deserts, tropical and temperate forests. ACER Aspire 3003LCi CPU Fan Neighbouring countries include Indonesia, East Timor and Papua New Guinea to the north, the Solomon Islands, Vanuatuand the French dependency of New Caledonia to the east, and New Zealand to the southeast. Australia is a country, and an island. It is located in Oceania between the Indian Ocean and the South Pacific Ocean. It is the sixth largest country in the world with a total area of 7,686,850 square kilometers (2,967,909 sq. mi) HP Pavilion dv7-6187cl CPU Fan (including Lord Howe Island and Macquarie Island), making it slightly smaller than the 48 states of the contiguous United States and 31.5 times larger than the United Kingdom. The Australian mainland has a total coastline length of 35,876 km (22,292 mi) with an additional 23,859 km (14,825 mi) of island coastlines.^[1] There are 758 estuaries around the country with most located in the tropical and sub-tropical zones.^[2] HP Pavilion dv7-1128ca CPU Fan Australia claims an extensive Exclusive Economic Zone of 8,148,250 square kilometres (3,146,057 sq. mi). This exclusive economic zone does not include the Australian Antarctic Territory. Australia has the largest area of ocean jurisdiction of any country on earth.^[3] It has no land borders. The northernmost points of the country are the Cape York Peninsula of Queensland and the Top End of the Northern Territory. HP Pavilion dv6-3216us CPU Fan The western half of Australia consists of the Western Plateau, which rises to mountain heights near the west coast and falls to lower elevations near the continental centre. The Western Plateau region is generally flat, though broken by various mountain ranges such as the Hamersley Range, the MacDonnell Ranges, and the Musgrave Range. Surface water is generally lacking in the Western Plateau, HP Pavilion dv6565el CPU Fan although there are several larger rivers in the west and north, such as the Murchison,Ashburton, and Victoria river. The Eastern Highlands, or Great Dividing Range, lie near the eastern coast of Australia, separating the relatively narrow eastern coastal plain from the rest of the continent. These Eastern Australian temperate forests have the greatest relief, the most rainfall, the most abundant and varied flora and fauna, and the densest human settlement. DELL Latitude E6410 CPU Fan Between the Eastern Highlands and the Western Plateau, lie the Central Lowlands, which are made up of the Great Artesian Basin and Australia's largest river systems, Murray-Darling Basin and Lake Eyre Basin. Off the eastern coast of Australia is the world's largest coral reef complex, the Great Barrier Reef. The State of Tasmania, a large and mountainous island, resides in the south-eastern corner of Australia. HP Pavilion dv6-2066dx CPU Fan Australia is the lowest, flattest, and oldest continental landmass on Earth  and it has had a relatively stable geological history. Geological forces such as tectonic uplift of mountain ranges or clashes between tectonic plates occurred mainly in Australia's early history, when it was still a part of Gondwana. Its highest peak is Mount Kosciuszko at 2,228 metres (7,310 ft), which is relatively low in comparison to the highest mountains on other continents. HP 610777-001 CPU Fan Erosion has heavily weathered Australia's surface. Australia is situated in the middle of the tectonic plate, and therefore currently has no active volcanism. Minor earthquakes which produce no damage occur regularly, while major earthquakes measuring greater than magnitude 6 occur on average every five years.^[4] Samsung MCF-913PAM05-40 CPU Fan The terrain is mostly low plateau with deserts, rangelands and a fertile plain in the southeast. Tasmania and the Australian Alps do not contain any permanent icefields or glaciers, although they may have existed in the past. The Great Barrier Reef, by far the world's largest coral reef, lies a short distance off the north-east coast. Because much of Australia's interior is arid, the low average annual rainfall means interior rivers are often dry and lakes empty.HP Pavilion dv7-2140eo CPU Fan The headwaters of some waterways are located in tropical regions where summer rains create a high rate of discharge. Flood events drastically alter the dry environment in which the ecology of central Australia has had to adapt to the boom and bust cycle. The Great Artesian Basin is an important source of water, the world's largest and deepest fresh water basin. HP Envy 15-1060ea CPU Fan Access to water from the basin has led to the expansion of grazing into areas that were previously far too dry for livestock. Towns and cities across the country sometimes face major water storage and usage crisis in which restrictions and other measures are implemented to reduce water consumption. Water restrictions are based on a gradient of activities that become progressively banned as the situation worsens. HP Pavilion dv4-2140us CPU Fan Billabong is the Australian name given to the oxbow lakes that can form along a meandering river's course. In a world-wide comparison of height, Australia's waterfalls are relatively insignificant, with the longest drop ranked 135th according to the World Waterfall Database. Australia consists of six states, two major mainland territories, and other minor territories. COMPAQ Presario F500 CPU Fan The states areNew South Wales, Queensland, South Australia, Tasmania, Victoria and Western Australia. The two major mainland territories are the Northern Territory and the Australian Capital Territory. Western Australia is the largest state covering just under one third of the Australian landmass, followed by Queensland and New South Wales. Australia also has several minor territories; the federal government administers a separate area within New South Wales, the Jervis Bay Territory, as a naval base and sea port for the national capital. HP Pavilion dv2310ca CPU Fan In addition Australia has the following, inhabited, external territories: Norfolk Island, Christmas Island, Cocos (Keeling) Islands, and several largely uninhabited external territories: Ashmore and Cartier Islands, Coral Sea Islands, Heard Island and McDonald Islands and the Australian Antarctic Territory. By far the largest part of Australia is arid or semi-arid. A total of 18% of Australia's mainland isdesert.^[7] Compaq Presario C554US CPU Fan Only the south-east and south-west corners have a temperate climate and moderately fertile soil. The northern part of the country has a tropical climate: part is tropical rainforests, part grasslands, and part desert. Rainfall is highly variable, with frequent droughts lasting several seasons thought to be caused in part by the El Niño-Southern Oscillation. HP Pavilion dv9660ef CPU Fan Occasionally a dust storm will blanket a region or even several states and there are reports of the occasional large tornado. Rising levels of salinity and desertification in some areas is ravaging the landscape. Australia's tropical/subtropical location and cold waters off the western coast make most of western Australia a hot desert with aridity, a marked feature of the greater part of the continent. SONY UDQF2PH05-AS CPU Fan These cold waters produce little moisture needed on the mainland. A 2005 study by Australian and American researchers investigated the desertification of the interior, and suggested that one explanation was related to human settlers who arrived about 50,000 years ago. Regular burning by these settlers could have prevented monsoons from reaching interior Australia. The outback covers 70 percent of the continent. SONY Vaio VGN-A17CP CPU Fan Current environmental issues include: soil erosion from overgrazing, industrial development, urbanization, and poor farming practices; soil salinity rising due to the use of poor quality water; desertification (partly as a result of the introduction by European settlers of Rabbits); introduced pest species; clearing for agricultural purposes threatens the natural habitat of many unique animal and plant species; Toshiba G20 CPU Fan the Great Barrier Reef off the northeast coast, the largest coral reef in the world, is threatened by increased shipping and its popularity as a tourist site; limited natural fresh water resources; threats from invasive species. The geology of Australia includes virtually all known rock types and from all geological time periods spanning over 3.8 billion years of the Earth's history. DELL Vostro 1510 CPU Fan Australia's geology can be divided into several main sections; the Archaean cratonic shields, Proterozoic fold belts and sedimentary basins, Phanerozoicsedimentary basins, and Phanerozoic metamorphic and igneous rocks. Australia as a separate continent began to form after the breakup of Gondwana in the Permian, with the separation of the continental landmass from the African continent and Indian subcontinent. Australia rifted from Antarctica in the Cretaceous.ACER Aspire One A150-1249 CPU Fan The current Australian continental mass is composed of a thick subcontinental lithosphere, over 200 km thick in the western two thirds and 100 km thick in the younger eastern third. The Australian continental crust, excluding the thinned margins, has an average thickness of 38 km, with a range in thickness from 24 km to 59 km. The continental crust is composed primarily of Archaean, Proterozoic and some Palaeozoic granites and gneisses. A thin veneer of mainly Phanerozoic sedimentary basins cover much of the Australian landmass (these are up to 7 km thick). HP Pavilion dv9766ez CPU Fan These in turn are currently undergoing erosion by a combination of aeolian and fluvial processes, forming extensive sand dune systems, deep and prolonged development of laterite and saprolite profiles, and development of playa lakes, salt lakes and ephemeral drainage. The geologic history of the Australian continental mass is extremely prolonged and involved, continuing from the Archaean to the recent. Dell Vostro 3400 CPU Fan In a gross pattern, continental Australia grew from west to east, with Archean rocks mostly in the west, Proterozoic rocks in the centre, and Phanerozoic rocks in the east. Recent geologic events are confined to intraplate earthquakes, as the continent of Australia sits distant from the plate boundary. The Australian continent evolved in five broad but distinct time periods, namely: 3800–2100 Ma, 2100–1300 Ma, 1300–600 Ma, 600–160 Ma and 160 Ma to the present. SONY Vaio VGN-SZ4MRN/B CPU Fan The first period saw the growth of nuclei about which cratonic elements grew, whereas the latter four periods involved the amalgamation and dispersal of Nuna, Rodinia and Pangea, respectively. The Australian landmass has been part of all major supercontinents, but its association with Gondwana is especially notable as important correlations have been made geologically with the African continental mass and Antarctica. DELL Inspiron 1720 CPU Fan Australia separated from Antarctica over a prolonged period beginning in the Permian and continuing through to the Cretaceous(84 Ma).Continental Australia is unique among the continents in that the measured stress field is not parallel to the present day north–northeast directed plate motion. Most of the stress state in continental Australia is controlled by compression originating from the three main collision boundaries located in New Zealand, ASUS BFB0705HA CPU Fan Indonesia and New Guinea, and the Himalaya(transmitted through the Indian and Capricorn plates). South of latitude -30°, the stress trajectories are oriented east–west to northwest–southeast. North of this latitude, the stress trajectories are closer to the present day plate motion, being oriented east-northeast–west-southwest to northeast–southwest. HP G56-106EA CPU Fan Notably, the main stress trajectories diverge most markedly from one another in north–central New South Wales (east–southeast to north–northeast), although the area is not known historically for earthquake activity. Young mountain building (< 5 Ma) in the Flinders Ranges of South Australia is driven from plate convergence at the boundary in New Zealand. HP Pavilion dv7-1135nr CPU Fan There are three main cratonic shields of recognised Archaean age within the Australian landmass: The Yilgarn, the Pilbara and the Gawler cratons. Several other Archaean-Proterozoic orogenic belts exist, usually sandwiched around the edges of these major cratonic shields. The history of the Archaean cratons is extremely complex and protracted. Dell Latitude E6510 CPU Fan The cratons appear to have been assembled to form the greater Australian landmass in the late Archaean to mesoProterozoic, (~2400 Ma to 1,600 Ma). Chiefly the Capricorn Orogeny is partly responsible for the assembly of the West Australian landmass by joining the Yilgarn and Pilbara cratons. The Capricorn Orogeny is exposed in the rocks of the Bangemall Basin, DELL DC280005FF0 CPU Fan Gascoyne Complex granite-gneisses and the Glengarry, Yerrida and Padbury basins. Unknown Proterozoic orogenic belts, possibly similar to the Albany Complex in southern Western Australia and the Musgrave Block, represent the Proterozoic link between the Yilgarn and Gawler cratons, covered by the Proterozoic-Palaeozoic Officer and Amadeus basins. HP KSB0605HB CPU Fan\ The assembly of the Archaean Yilgarn and Pilbara cratons of Australia was initiated at ~2200 Ma during the first phases of the Capricorn orogen. The last stages of the 2770-2300 Ma Hamersley Basin on the southern margin of the Pilbara Craton are Palaeoproterozoic and record the last stable submarine-fluviatile environments between the two cratons prior to the rifting, HP 580696-001 CPU Fan contraction and assembly of the intracratonic ~1800 Ma Ashburton and Blair basins, the 1600-1070 Ma Edmund and Collier basins, the 1840-1620 Ma northern Gascoyne Complex, the 2000-1780 Ma Glenburgh Terrane in the southern Gascoyne Complex and the Errabiddy Shear Zone at the northwestern margin of the Yilgarn Craton. Between approximately 2000-1800 Ma, on the northern margin of the Yilgarn Craton, the c. HP Pavilion dv7-4014eo CPU Fan 1890 Ma Narracoota Volcanics of the Bryah Basin formed in a transverse back-arc rift sag basin during collision. Culmination of the cratonic collision resulted in the foreland sedimentary Padbury Basin. To the east the Yerrida and Eerarheedy Basins were passive margins along the Yilgarn's northern margin. The c. 1830 Ma phase of the Capricorn Orogeny in this section of the Pilbara-Yilgarn boundary resulted in deformation of the Bryah-Padbury Basin and the western fringe of the Yerrida Basin, along with flood basalts. DELL Studio 1555 CPU Fan The Yapungku Orogeny (~1790 Ma) formed the Stanley Fold Belt on the northern margin of the Eerarheedy Basin, via assembly of the Archaean-Proterozoic fold belts of Northern Australia. East Australian Events The Palaeoproterozoic in southeastern Australia is represented by the polydeformed high-grade gneiss terranes of the Willyama Supergroup, Olary Block and Broken Hill Block, in South Australia and New South Wales. HP G62-339WM CPU Fan The Palaeoproterozoic in the north of Australia is represented mostly by the Mount Isa Block and complex fold-thrust belts. These rocks, aside from suffering intense deformation, record a period of widespread platform cover sedimentation, ensialic rift-sag sedimentation including widespread dolomite platform cover, and extensive phosphorite deposition in the deeper sea beds.HP Pavilion dv5-1145ev CPU Fan HP F787 CPU Fan The Stavely Zone in Victoria is a boninite to MORB basalt terrane considered to have been connected with the boninites the Mount Read Volcanics of Northern Tasmania. In New South Wales, extensive deepwater sedimentation formed the Adaminaby Beds in Victoria and New South Wales. The Lachlan Fold Belt ophiolite sequences are considered to be of Cambrian age, and are obducted during the Lachlan Orogen. HP Pavilion dv7-3155eb CPU Fan The Petermann Orogeny in Central Australia, which started at the end of the Neoproterozoic, continued into the Cambrian, shedding a thick intracontinental sequence of fluvial sediments into the central Australian landmass. Marginal platforms and passive margin basins existed in South Australia - - formed in the foreland of the Delamerian Orogeny. Western Australian passive margin basins and platform cover begin at this stage. DELL Studio 1458 CPU Fan The extensive Antrim Plateau flood basalts, covering in excess of 12,000 square kilometres, erupt in the Cambrian of Western Australia, providing a useful chronostratigraphic marker. The late Cambrian to early Ordovician saw deepwater sedimentation of the St Arnaud and Castlemaine Group turbidites, which are now emplaced in the Stawell and Bendigo Zones. Toshiba Satellite A505-S6970 CPU Fan The middle Ordovician saw the deposition of the Sunbury Group in the Melbourne Zone, Bendoc Group and formation of the Molong Arc, a calc-alkaline volcanic arc which is related to the Kiandra Group turbidites. During the Silurian Period most of the Australian continent in the west and centre was dry land. However from Geraldton north to Exmouth Gulf along the far Western Australian coast a fluvial sediment basin existed. HP Pavilion dv6-3090si CPU Fan Near Kalbarri on the Murchison River the footprints of a giant water scorpion were found on land, the first animal to walk on the Australian continent. A gulf linked to the sea existed under what is now the Great Sandy Desert. Meanwhile in the east there were volcanic arcs in New England, also west of Townsville and Cairns, and in NSW and Victoria and the Australian Capital Territory.HP G60-215EM CPU Fan Deep water sediments formed in the Cowra, Tumut and Hillend Troughs. The Yass Molong rise was a row of volcanoes. Granite intrusions formed in New South Wales and Victoria from 435 to 425 Mya, with the Bega batholith as young as 400 Mya. In NSW granites the distinction between I-type and S-type granites was discovered. During the Devonian Period conditions were warm in Australia. Toshiba Satellite A100-011 CPU Fan There was a large bay in the great Sandy Desert with reefs. The Calliope Arc went from the north of Rockhampton south to Grafton. Most of the centre and west of Australia was land mass. There were volcanic mountains off the current east coast supplying sediment into a basin on parts of the east. The basin contained limestone and river deposited sand. DELL XPS M1210 CPU Fan Andesite and Rhyolite volcanoes were found in central NSW, the Snowy Mountains, Eden, New England and near Clermont, Queensland. Baragwanathia longifolia was the first Australian land plant appearing at this time. The Tabberabberan Orogeny compressed the eastern seaboard in an east west direction, with Tasmania, Victoria and southern New South Wales folded 385 - 380 Mya. Northern NSW and Queensland was compressed 377 to 352 Mya.  HP G62-120SL CPU Fan A major river drained the continental interior and passed eastwards at Parkes. The Bungle Bungle Range sandstone was formed in Western Australia from river sands. More Granite was intruded in the Devonian. The Carboniferous Period saw the Eastern Highlands of Australia form as a result of its collision with what are now parts of South America (e.g. the Sierra de Cordoba) and New Zealand. HP Pavilion dv6-2117eo CPU Fan At the time they were formed they are believed to have been as high as any mountains on the planet today, but they have been almost completely eroded in the 280 million years since. Another notable feature of Carboniferous Australia was a major ice age which left over half of the continent glaciated. Evidence for the cold conditions can be seen not only in glacial features dating from this period but also in fossil Gelisols from as far north as the Hunter River basin. Toshiba Satellite L305D-S5950 CPU Fan he Permian to Triassic in Australia is dominated by subduction zones on the eastern margin of the landmass, part of the Hunter-Bowen Orogeny. This was a major arc-accretion, subduction and back-arc sedimentary basin forming event which persisted episodically from approximately late Carboniferous in its initial stages, through the Permian and terminated in the Middle Triassic at around 229Ma to 225Ma. SONY Vaio VGN-BZ11MN CPU Fan In Western and Central Australia the then-extensive central Australian mountain ranges such as the Petermann Ranges were eroded by the Permian glacial event, resulting in thick marine to fluvial glacial tillite and fossiliferous limestone deposits and extensive platform cover. Rifting of Australia from India and Africa began in the Permian, resulting in the production of a rift basin and half-grabens of the basal portions of the long-lived Perth Basin. SONY Vaio VGN-TX91S CPU Fan Petroleum was formed in the Swan Coastal Plain and Pilbara during this rifting, presumably in a rift valley lake where the bottom was deoxygenated (akin to Africa's Lake Tanganyika today). In the west of Australia the Jurassic was a tropical savannah to jungle environment, shown by advanced tropical weathering preserved in the regolith of theYilgarn craton which is still preserved today. Toshiba Satellite A100-849 CPU Fan Australia began rifting away from Antarctica in the Jurassic, which formed the Gippsland, Bass and Otway Basins in Victoria and the offshore shelf basins of South Australia and Western Australia, all of which host significant oil and gas deposits. Jurassic coal-bearing basins were formed in north central Queensland, with significant marine platform cover extending across most of central Australia. Gateway MT6400 CPU Fan Continued passive-margin subsidence and marine transgressions in the Perth Basin of Western Australia continued, with the Jurassic Cattamarra Coal Measures a notable fluvial terrigenous formation of the Jurassic. The initial rifting of Australia and Antarctica in the Jurassic continued through the Cretaceous, with offshore development of a mid ocean ridge seafloor spreading centre. Toshiba Satellite A100-849 CPU Fan Tasmania was rifted off during this stage. Cretaceous volcanism in the offshore of Queensland was related to a minor episode of arc formation, typified by the Whitsunday Islands, followed by development of offshore coral platforms, passive margin basins and far-field volcanism throughout the quiet Hunter-Bowen orogenic belt. Cretaceous sedimentation continued in the Surat Basin. Dell Vostro 3350 CPU Fan Some small Cretaceous volcanism was present at the edges of basement highs in the Great Artesian Basin, resulting in some sparse volcanic plugs today. Water security in Australia has become a major concern over the course of the late 20th and early 21st century as a result of population growth, severedrought, fears of the effects of global warming on Australia, environmental degradation from reduced environmental flows, competition between competing interests such as grazing, irrigation and urban water supplies, and competition between upstream and downstream users. ACER Aspire 4733 CPU Fan Water reform was first placed on the national agenda at the 1994 Council of Australian Governments (COAG) meeting when a strategic framework was devised.^[1] As the knowledge of surface and groundwater systems grew and the awareness of the significance of sustainable water markets increased, further water reform was agreed to at the 2004 COAG meeting, under a national blueprint known as the National Water Initiative (NWI). HP Pavilion dv8335ea CPU Fan Australia can be divided into 12 major drainage divisions. For example, the Murray-Darling drainage division consists of the Murray River basin and the Darling River basin. Three of these drainage division account for 87% of the water that Australia consumes – the North East Coast division, the South East Coast division, and the Murray-Darling. This means that the supply of water within Australia is highly concentrated, and any defect to one of these major water divisions can cause major water security issues. Dell Vostro 3400 CPU Fan Since the turn of the 21st century, there have been attempts to establish a privatised water market in Australia, with the state of Victoria acting as a model for other states. Many political parties, community groups, NGO's and other groups and people see the privatisation of water as a denial of basic human rights on behalf of State and Federal Governments. APPLE MG62090V1-Q020-S99 CPU Fan Water privatisation is a highly controversial topic and touches on the much broader arguments for and against the private control of formerly public services. A major boundary which affects effective water management is the highly variable precipitation levels of Australia – Australian rainfall is more variable than rainfall in rest of the world since it is driven by the Southern Oscillation rather than by seasonal changes.^[2] APPLE 15" Macbook Pro Unibody CPU Fan The result is that for the same level of reliability of supply, dams in Australia need to be six times as large as those in Europe and twice as large as the world average to ensure water sources do not run dry during dry seasons. In Australia there is competition for the resources of the Darling River system between Queensland, New South Wales and South Australia. Similarly there is competition for the resources of the Murray River between NSW, Gateway 6020GZ CPU Fan Victoria and South Australia. The South Australian government established a new ministerial portfolio of Water Security as the water security issues facing South Australia and the Lower Lakes and Coorong emerged.^[3] South Australia also has an Independent Commissioner for Water Security. The National Water Commission is an independent statutory body within the Department of Sustainability, Toshiba Satellite Pro M30-891 CPU Fan Environment, Water, Population and Communities that was established under the National Water Commission Act 2004 to implement the National Water Initiative and reform the broader national water agenda.^[1] The National Water Commission published a report on the future need for desalination technologies to play a role in securing Australia’s water supplies.^[8] Toshiba Satellite Pro M30-782 CPU Fan It also publishes a biennial assessment of progress in implementation of the National Water Initiative, the latest being in October 2009. The 2009 assessment nominates areas of slow or inadequate reform and makes 68 recommendations for action over the next two years. Several major capital works are currently under construction in an effort to privatise the nation's water. HP Pavilion dv5-1050eo CPU Fan Water desalination has been introduced as a way of creating new water to increase the security of the supply of water, at huge financial costs, environmental losses and increased greenhouse gas emissions, while several pipelines are under construction in an effort to link regional systems to facilitate the trading of water.^[19] Price rises for consumers have been highest in Sydney where water deliveries are provided by Australia's largest utility, Sydney Water.^[20] SONY VGN-SZ220 CPU Fan The policies of several State Governments moves away from sustainable water management and divests themselves of their responsibilities to provide sustainable, just and affordable, potable water to their population. The Kurnell Desalination Plant constructed by the NSW Government at Kurnell near Botany Bay has commenced operations. The power usage is to be offset by a new wind farm. Sydney also draws water from the Shoalhaven River near Nowra. Dell Studio XPS 1645 CPU Fan Hunter Water Corporation proposes a dam, Tillegra Dam, on the Williams River in Dungog Shire in the Upper Hunter Region. When completed, the dam will hold 450 billion litres of water. The estimated cost of the dam is around $300 million ($477 Million as at April 2010). Included in the dam proposal is a hydro-power generation plant which will generate around 3,000 megawatt hours of energy each year. ACER eMachines 7230 CPU Fan Hunter Water is also proposing to plant 1.5 million trees as carbon offsets. The need for this dam is strongly disputed and subject to review by the NSW Government Department of Planning. Hunter Water claims the dam is required to "drought proof" Newcastle and the Central Coast.^[21] Opponents say the dam is grossly excessive for this need, will drown valuable agricultural land and greater water efficiency, demand management and recycling would eliminate the need for the dam. DELL Latitude E4300 CPU Fan The Victorian state government plans several major construction projects to be completed as Private-Public Partnerships (PPPs), in an effort to link state water supplies. These projects are designed to establish a state-wide water market in preparation of the privatisation of Victoria's water.^[19] The works include a $3.1 billion desalination plant to be built near Wonthaggi by the end of 2011,^[24] SONY Vaio VGN-A29LP CPU Fan the North-South pipeline to connect water supplies from the Goulburn Valley to Melbourne and Central Victoria, and an interconnector pipeline connecting the Geelong-Ballarat region. Many argue that in privatising Victoria's water resources and creating a market to trade water between regions, the State Government is divesting itself from its core human rights responsibilities to ensure potable water to the population it represents.^[19HP Pavilion dv7t-6100 CTO CPU Fan ^] This would come at great environmental cost, increase energy usage, decrease efficience, ignore sustainable water management options and increase end-user water costs, placing water privatisation as a high risk to water security in Victoria, despite its acceptance by the state government. On 24 October 2009 the Sydney Morning Herald reported that the Lachlan River would stop flowing west of Condoblin within weeks as flows are slashed to keep only part of the river flowing, HP Pavilion dv7-3163cl CPU Fan that the Wyangala Dam could be empty by mid summer (15 January 2010) and that thousands of households will need to have water trucked to them. This situation follows 8 years of drought. Farmers in the area of the Lachlan Valley where the river will not flow are deeply concerned for the viability of their farms. More than 100,000 people live in the total Lachlan catchment. HP Pavilion dv7-4140ed CPU Fan 14% of NSW agricultural production is generated in the region from a land area of approximately 10% of NSW. The states and mainland territories of the Commonwealth of Australia combine to make up the world's sixth-largest country by total area. Australia comprises six states and various territories; the Australian mainland is made up of five states and three territories (including small, somewhat anomalous Jervis Bay), Compaq Presario CQ60-155ep CPU Fan with the sixth island state of Tasmania to the south of the mainland. In addition, there are six island territories, known as external territories, and Australian Antarctic Territory. All states and two of the three internal grounds have their own parliaments and administer themselves; all remaining territories are administered by the federal government, but with Norfolk Island having some degree of self-government. HP Mini 110-3000sd CPU Fan The states originated as separate British colonies prior to Federation (in 1901). The colony of New South Wales was founded in 1788 and originally comprised much of the Australian mainland, as well as Lord Howe Island, New Zealand, Norfolk Island, and Van Diemen's Land, in addition to the area currently referred to as the state of New South Wales. Compaq Presario CQ60-155ep CPU Fan

These students were taught by 74,501 teachers (66.3% female)

These students were taught by 74,501 teachers (66.3% female) in 6,083 schools, of which 614 were private. The upper secondary school system had 337,145 students (46.9% female). They were taught by 13,900 teachers (42.3% female) in 730 schools, of which 240 were private. The tertiary education system had 234,799 students (49.7% female). They were taught by 37,546 teachers (32.8% female) in 367 schools. Compaq Presario A900 CTO CPU Fan The police registered a total of 553,421 criminal offences in 2009, including 51 killings and 185 attempted murders. There were 666 cases of rape. In the same year, 94,574 adults (85% of them male, 47.4% of them Swiss citizens) were convicted under criminal law. 57.3% of convictions were for traffic offences.^[23] In the same year, 15,064 minors (78.3% of them male, 68.2% of them of Swiss nationality, 76.3% aged between 15 and 18) were convicted.^[24] ACER Aspire 4736ZG CPU Fan The number of convictions in the last five years is given in the following table. The first Federal population census in Switzerland took place in March 1850 under the direction of Federal Councillor Stefano Franscini. As well as counting the number of inhabitants, respondents were also asked about their sex, age, marital status, occupation and religion. Toshiba Satellite A10-103 CPU Fan Between 1860 and 2000, a census took place every ten years in December. The only exceptions to this 10-year rhythm were the population census of 1888 (brought forward as the basis for the revision of the constituency boundaries) and the population census of 1941 (delayed due to the mobilisation of the army in May 1940). The census of 2000 was the last to use traditional methods. SONY MCF-519PAM05 CPU Fan Since 2010, the population census has been carried out and analysed annually in a new format by the Federal Statistical Office(FSO). In order to ease the burden on the population, the information is primarily drawn from population registers and supplemented by sample surveys. Only a small proportion of the population (about 5%) are surveyed in writing or by telephone. The first reference day for the new census was 31 December 2010. SONY Vaio VPC-EB290X CPU Fan The new census is primarily based on a register survey that evaluates existing administrative data. To this end, the FSO uses cantonal and communal population registers, federal registers of persons and the Federal Register of Buildings and Dwellings. Information that is not recorded in any register has to be collected by means of additional sample surveys (structural survey, thematic surveys, omnibus surveys). HP Pavilion dv7-2043cl CPU Fan The Register survey provides basic information about the entire population. It furnishes results on the size and structure of the population and of households, as well as of residential buildings and dwellings. The results are available each year at the end of August (population statistics, buildings and dwellings statistics) or at the beginning of the year following the survey (household statistics, housing conditions). HP Pavilion dv7-2130ev CPU Fan For the Structural Survey^[1] 200,000 people are surveyed in writing each year. Cantons and cities can enlarge the sample for their area. The survey provides additional statistics on the structure of the population and thus complements the information in the registers. The first results are available one year after the reference day. Cumulative results for the 2010-2012 period will be available by the end of 2013. HP 608772-001 CPU Fan Apart from agriculture, there are minimal economic and trade barriers between the European Union and Switzerland. In the wake of the Swiss voters' rejection of the European Economic Area Agreement in 1992, the Swiss Government set its sights on negotiating bilateral economic agreements with the EU. Four years of negotiations culminated in Bilaterals, a cross-platform agreement covering seven sectors: Toshiba Satellite A100-194 CPU Fan research, public procurement, technical barriers to trade, agriculture, civil aviation, land transport, and the free movement of persons. Parliament officially endorsed the Bilaterals in 1999 and it was approved by general referendum in May 2000. The agreements, which were then ratified by the European Parliament and the legislatures of its member states, entered into force on June 1, 2002. HP Pavilion tx1205/ CT CPU Fan The Swiss government has since embarked on a second round of negotiations, called the Bilaterals II, which will further strengthen the two organisations' economic ties. Switzerland has since brought most of their practices into conformity with European Union policies and norms in order to maximise the country's international competitiveness. HP Pavilion dv6640ep CPU Fan While most of the EU policies are not contentious, police and judicial cooperation to international law enforcement and the taxation of savings are controversial, mainly because of possible side effects on bank secrecy.Swiss and EU finance ministers agreed in June 2003 that Swiss banks would levy a withholding tax on EU citizens' savings income. The tax would increase gradually to 35% by 2011, with 75% of the funds being transferred to the EU. Recent estimates value EU capital inflows to Switzerland to $8.3 billion. COMPAQ Presario CQ42-401TU CPU Fan Taxes in Switzerland are levied by the Swiss Confederation, the cantons and the municipalities. Switzerland is sometimes considered a tax haven due to its general low rate of taxation, its political stability as well as the various tax exemptions or reductions available to Swiss companies doing business abroad, or foreign persons resident in Switzerland. Toshiba Satellite A300D CPU Fan Switzerland is a federal republic in which the sovereignty of the constituent states (the cantons) is limited by the enumerated powers delegated to the federal state (the Confederation) through the federal constitution. Consequently, the original authority to levy taxes is vested in the individual cantons of Switzerland through their constitutions.^[1] Within the bounds of the authority delegated to them by cantonal law, the municipalities may also levy taxes. The extent of that authority varies from canton to canton.^[2] HP Pavilion dv8397ea CPU  Fan While the formal framework of the most important cantonal direct taxes has been harmonised through the 1990 Federal Tax Harmonisation Law, the cantons (and, as the case may be, the municipalities) remain free to set their tax rates or establish new taxes, except on tax objects already taxed under federal law.^[3] Since World War II, the federal constitution authorises the Confederation to levy a number of taxes, HP Pavilion dv9821ea CPU Fan the most significant of which are an income tax, awithholding tax and a value added tax. However, Switzerland is unique among modern sovereign states in that the authority to levy these taxes is limited in duration and extent.^[4][5] The Constitution imposes an upper limit on the federal tax rates and causes the federal authority to levy taxes to expire in 2020. HP COMPAQ TC4200 CPU Fan A renewal of that authority requires a constitutional amendment, which must be approved in a popular referendum by both a majority of the popular vote and the cantons. If that renewal is not approved at the polls (as it has been six times since 1958),^[5] the Confederation itself will conceivably dissolve for lack of funds. All attempts to remove this limitation by amending the constitution to provide for a permanent federal authority to levy taxes have been rejected in Parliament or – no less than five times – by popular vote, most recently in 1991. SONY Vaio VGN-NW228F CPU Fan The federal constitution imposes certain limits on taxation at the federal cantonal and municipal levels. To begin with, it provides that no tax may be levied except where provided for by federal, cantonal or municipal statute.^[7] Because statutes can at all levels be made subject to a popular referendum, Swiss tax rates are in practice set directly by the voters through instruments of direct democracy.^[8] HP G62-b16ST CPU Fan The constitution mandates that taxation must be general and equal in nature, and it must be proportionate to one's ability to pay.^[7] The Federal Supreme Courthas interpreted this as prohibiting a regressive tax,^[7] although flat rate taxes (as instituted in several cantons) are held to be constitutional by tax law scholars. Moreover, double taxation by several cantons is constitutionally prohibited, as is a confiscatory rate of taxation. HP 580696-001 CPU Fan All people resident in Switzerland are liable for the taxation of their worldwide income and assets, except on the income and wealth from foreign business or real estate,^[9] or where tax treaties limit double taxation. For tax purposes, residence may also arise if a person stays in Switzerland for 30 days, or for 90 days if he or she does not work.^[10] HP Pavilion dv6-3049tx CPU Fan Moreover, non-residents are also taxed on certain Swiss assets or on the income from certain Swiss sources, such as fromreal estate, permanent business establishments or pensions.^[11] The income and assets of spouses are pooled and taxed jointly, but at a lower rate to offset the effects of tax progression. Either a progressive or proportional income tax is levied by the Confederation and by the cantons on the income of natural persons. HP G42-380LA CPU Fan The income tax is imposed as a payroll tax on foreign workers without a residence permit,^[12] and in the form of a withholding tax on certain transient persons, such as foreign musicians performing in Switzerland. Taxable income includes all funds accruing to a person from all sources, in principle without deduction of losses or expenses,^[13] and including the rental value of a house lived in by its owner.^[14Toshiba Qosmio G30-167 CPU Fan ^] However, capital gains on private property (such as profits from the sale of shares) are tax-free, except where the cantons levy a tax on real estate capital gains.^[15] Certain expenses are also deductible. These include social security or pension fund payments,^[16] expenses related to the gain of income (such as employment expenses and maintenance costs of real estate) and alimonies.^[17HP Pavilion dv7-1157cl CPU Fan ^] Gifts and inheritances are also exempt from the income tax, but are subject to separate cantonal taxes.^[13] Non-working foreigners resident in Switzerland may choose to pay a "lump-sum tax" instead of the normal income tax. The tax, which is generally much lower than the normal income tax, is nominally levied on the taxpayer's living expenses, Compaq Presario CQ40-408AX CPU Fan but in practice (which varies from canton to canton), it is common to use the quintuple of the rent paid by the taxpayer as a basis for the lump-sum taxation.^[18] This option contributes to Switzerland's status as a tax haven, and has induced many wealthy foreigners to live in Switzerland. In 2011, the federal income tax varied from a bracket of 1% (for single tax payers) and 0.77% (for married taxpayers) to the maximum rate of 11.5%.HP Mini 110-1110ET CPU Fan Individuals earning below 13,600 and couples earning below 27,000 Swiss francs were exempt. On cantonal level, tax rates varies heavily, Obwalden adapted a 1.8% flat tax on all personal income following a cantonal referendum in 2007. In most cantons, the rate is proportional with a maximum rate of 6.5% in Bern, whereas in Zurich it was 13% and in Geneva 17.58-.76 % (depending upon taxes as single or jointly). HP Pavilion dv7-1157cl CPU Fan Switzerland has a "classical" corporate tax system in which a corporation and its owners or shareholders are taxed individually, causing economic double taxation. All legal persons are subject to the taxation of their profit and capital, with the exception of charitable organisations.^[23] Tax liability arises if either the legal seat or the effective management of a corporation is in Switzerland.^[24] HP Pavilion dv6-3163eo CPU Fan To the extent non-resident companies have Swiss sources of income, such as business establishments or real estate, they are also liable for taxation.^[24] Conversely, as a unilateral measure to limit double taxation, profits from foreign business establishments or real estate are exempted from taxation. HP Pavilion dv9740us CPU Fan A proportional or progressive tax is levied by the Confederation (at a flat rate of 8.5%) and the cantons (at varying rates) on corporate profits. The tax is based on the net profit as accounted for in the corporate income statement, as adjusted for tax purposes.^[24] For instance, expenditures that have no business reason such as excessive depreciations, accruals or reserves, as well as disguised dividends are taxed as profits.^[25] HP COMPAQ NX9420 CPU Fan A number of provisions limit the double taxation of profits at the corporate level and contribute to Switzerland's tax haven status. To begin with, a "participation exemption" is granted to companies who hold 20 percent or more of the shares of other companies; the amount of tax due on the corresponding profit is reduced in proportion to the percentage of shares held.^[26] HP Pavilion dv7-4150ec CPU Fan At the cantonal level only, a "holding privilege" applies to pure holding companies. They are exempt from the cantonal corporate profit tax.^[26] Moreover, cantonal law confers a "domicile privilege" on companies who are only administered in Switzerland, but whose business is conducted abroad; including shell corporations.^[27] The cantons tax only around 10 percent of the worldwide profits of such companies. HP Pavilion dv5-1102tu CPU Fan A proportional tax is levied by the cantons (at varying rates) on the Eigenkapital (ownership equity) of companies.^[28] Thinly capitalised companies are taxed, moreover, on the liabilities that function as equity. This also means that debts paid on such liabilities cannot be deducted for purposes of the profit tax, and are subject to the federal withholding tax. SONY VGN-SZ220 CPU Fan The value added tax (VAT; Mehrwertsteuer / Taxe sur la valeur ajoutée / Tassa sul valore aggiunto) is one of the Confederation's principal sources of funding. It is levied at a rate of 8 percent on most commercial exchanges of goods and services. Certain exchanges, including those of foodstuffs, drugs, books and newspapers, are subject to a reduced VAT of 2.4 percent.^[30] HP Pavilion dv7-6011tx CPU Fan Yet other exchanges, including those of medical, educational and cultural services, are tax-exempt; as are goods delivered and services provided abroad.^[31] The party providing the service or delivering the goods is liable for the payment of the VAT, but the tax is usually passed on to the customer as part of the price. The federal withholding tax (Verrechnungssteuer / impôt anticipé / Imposta preventiva) is levied at a rate of 35 percent on certain forms of income, HP Pavilion dv5-1040eb CPU Fan most notably dividend payments, interest on bank loans and bonds, liquidation proceeds, lottery prizes and payments by life insurances and private pension funds.^[33]The debtor of such payments is liable for the payment of the tax; they must pay the creditor only the net amount.^[34] With respect to creditors resident in Switzerland, the withholding tax is only a means of securing the payment of the income or profit tax, ASUS F3Jv CPU Fan from which the creditor may then deduct the amount already withheld, or request its refund.^[35] The same applies to foreign creditors to the extent that a tax treaty provides for it.^[36] Other foreign creditors are not eligible for a refund; with respect to them, the withholding tax is a genuine tax. Stamp duties are a group of federal taxes levied on certain commercial transactions. IBM ThinkPad R50p 2887 CPU Fan The name is an anachronism and dates back to the time when such taxes were administered with physical stamps.^[37] The issue tax (Emissionssteuer / Tassa di emissione) is levied on the issue of certain securities such as shares and bonds. Exceptions are made, inter alia, for securities issued in the course of a commercial reorganization, and the first million CHF of funds raised are in effect exempt from taxation.^[38] SONY VGN-CS36GJ/R CPU Fan The tax amounts to one percent of the funds raised and is payable by the issuer.^[39] The trade in shell companies (Mantelhandel) is also subject to the issue tax.^[40] The transfer tax (Umsatzsteuer / Imposta sulla cifra d'affari) is levied on the trade in certain securities by certain qualified traders (Effektenhändler; mostly stockbrokers and large holding companies). TToshiba Satellite A215-S4807 CPU Fan he tax amounts to 0.15 or 0.3 percent depending on whether Swiss or foreign securities are traded.^[41]Finally, an insurance premiums tax of 5 or 2.5 percent is levied on certain insurance premiums. The Confederation is constitutionally empowered to levy tariffs,^[43] which were its principal sources of funding up until World War I, but are now more important as an instrument of trade policy. Toshiba Satellite Pro M10-SP405 CPU Fan Additional federal taxes of lesser economic importance include taxes on the importation or manufacture of spirits, beer,tobacco, automobiles and mineral oil, as well as on gambling establishments.^[44] Citizens exempt from military service are required to pay a tax in compensation. In addition to the taxes mentioned above, the cantons are free to introduce others. HP Pavilion dv4-1120us CPU Fan Several cantons levy an inheritance tax (Erbschaftssteuer / Imposta di successione) and a gift tax (Schenkungssteuer / Imposta di donazione), although there is a trend towards abolishing those.^[46] Moreover, the cantons are required by federal law to levy a tax on the profit from the sale of real estate (Grundstückgewinnsteuer / impôt sur les gains immobiliers / Imposta sugli utili immobiliari).^[47Compaq Presario C550EM CPU Fan ^] Most also levy a tax on the value of the property sold (Handänderungssteuer / impôt sur les mutations / Tassa di mutazione) so as to discouragespeculation in real estate.^[48] Taxes are also frequently levied on the ownership of dogs and motor vehicles,^[49] on lotteries, on the sale of tickets to public entertainments, or on overnight stays in certain tourist destinations. Toshiba Qosmio E15-AV101 CPU Fan Depending on the nature of the tax at issue, criminal offences related to the nonpayment of taxes are regulated in substantially different ways by cantonal and federal statutes.^[51] This section will therefore discuss only the outlines of the harmonised rules governing tax evasion and tax fraud with respect to the federal and cantonal income, profit, property and capital taxes. Toshiba Satellite L645D-S4056 CPU Fan It is a criminal offence under cantonal and federal law to wilfully cause one's taxes to be incompletely assessed. The statutes distinguish, however, betweentax evasion and tax fraud. Tax evasion is the act of causing a tax to be falsely assessed, such as through the failure to report taxable income.^[52] It is classed as a misdemeanour (Übertretung / contravention) and is punishable by a fine of 33% to 300% of the amount of tax evaded.^[53Toshiba Satellite A305-S6837 CPU Fan ^] Tax fraud, on the other hand, occurs if a tax evasion is committed by using false documents (such as untrue corporate financial reports) for deceptive purposes.^[54] It is classed as a crime (Vergehen / crime) and is punishable by additional imprisonment of up to three years or an additional fine of up to 30,000 CHF.^[55] This distinction is of particular importance with respect to the level of international judicial assistance afforded by Swiss authorities to foreign states that prosecute their own citizens for tax evasions committed in Switzerland, HP Pavilion dv7-4087cl CPU Fan such as by depositing undeclared income with a Swiss bank. Up until recently, Swiss law prohibited all support to foreign jurisdictions for the prosecution of fiscal offences, except to the U.S. under the terms of a 1973 agreement.^[56] Since 1983, enforcement assistance is provided (such as the search and seizure of accounts and documents) for the prosecution of fiscal crimesHP Pavilion dv5-1118es CPU Fan (notably, tax fraud) but not for the prosecution of fiscal misdemeanours (notably, tax evasion).^[57] Under pressure from the G20 and the OECD, the Swiss government announced in March 2009 that it will abolish the distinction between tax fraud and tax evasion in dealings with foreign clients. The Swiss authorities will from now on also provide judicial assistance in the event of tax evasion by a foreign client.^[58] Toshiba Satellite A665-S6050 CPU Fan The distinction remains valid for domestic clients.In 2002, some CHF 134 billion in taxes were levied in Switzerland, of which roughly one third was levied by the Confederation, the cantons and the municipalities, respectively.^[59] The overall fiscal rate was 38.5 percent of GDP in 2002.^[60] The effective individual tax rate is subject to considerable variation depending on the canton and municipality of residence. HP Pavilion G72-259WM CPU Fan For instance, companies subject to ordinary taxation paid between 13 and 25 percent of income tax in 2006, and the maximum individual tax rates in major cities ranged between 12.3 percent in the canton of Zug and 32.3 percent in the canton of Jura. HP Pavilion dv6-3109ca  CPU  Fan,HP Pavilion dv6782eg CPU Fan,SONY UDQF2PH52CF0 CPU Fan